Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 09
FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION
Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
Precise notes.
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PRAGMATISM IN MODERN EDUCATION
Pragmatism is closely related to modern education. The slogan of this ideology is 'change'. According to it the world is liable to change. Nothing is permanent here in the world and no principle is true and valid for all times. All things are liable to change. In many countries, communities and sections of society which were rural and agrarian are now urban and industrialized. Such a change is occurring in our country also. After independence vast transformations have occurred in the fields of politics, economics and social living. These changes may not be according to our plans, but nevertheless, changes are definitely taking place in all fields of human activity after the attainment of independence in 1947 A.D. We see that
needs of our life have now changed and will be changing in future also. This change has its effect upon our education and educational institutions also. The credit of introducing Pragmatism into education goes to two social thinkers namely William James and John Dewey. According to John Dewey, the real value of a thing lies in its utility for human welfare. Education will also be useful and purposeful if it contributes to human welfare and progress. All the aspects of education should be conducive to human good and human growth. Then only, they will become real and true.
It the process of education does not promote human
welfare, then all the aspects of education are of no use, and must be changed to become desirable and beneficial. Pragmatism holds firmly that any specific educational process cannot be regarded as final and useful for all times to come. It must change according to the changing needs and requirements of the changing society. It must be noted that in a progressive society only those educational processes and institutions can remain alive and active which are flexible enough to satisfy the ever changing needs of society and which provide real life experiences together with adaptable attitudes to make people dynamic, resourceful, efficient and enterprising in the modern challenging times. According to Pragmatism, mere gaining of knowledge for the sake of knowledge is not the real aim of education. According to this ideology, the various aspects of education namely—mental, religious and aesthetic are the various modes of human activity. Pragmatists firmly hold that through these various activities a human being creates his own ideals and values. Hence, all these activities
must fulfil his needs and prove useful to him. This belief of the pragmatists clearly shows that education is not the dynamic side of philosophy, but philosophy itself is evolved from education. In other words, it is education which gives birth to philosophy. According to John Dewey—"Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general sense."
Pragmatism has promoted a new consciousness and
awakening in the field of modern education with the result that old ideals, beliefs, traditions and narrow angles of vision are dying out. This ideology emphasizes inductive method of gaining knowledge. This method inspires in the child a heuristic and investigating spirit to research and formation of new values which are useful to modern living and which can be safely verified and proved right and real by experiments and experiences. In this way, Pragmatism
upholds the supreme value of man and prescribes freedom of thinking, experimenting and experiencing for him. Not only this, it lays emphasis upon flexibility, utility and adjustment in all fields of human activity promoting the continuous development of individual and society to the fullest extent.
PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
Pragmatism does not believe in any "central transcendental core of personality running through and unifying" the various situations in life. Personality is "an empirical thing", "and is a function of each social situation as it arises." In such a world of fluctuating personalities, all that education can do is "to transmit the social backgrounds and outlooks characteristic of the community as a whole to all members of the rising generation." In other words, the aim of education is to prepare the child for membership in the modern community. Further as a corollary to this aim, the function is to give such
techniques to the children as to enable them to solve the present-day problems efficiently. Thus the purpose of education is to turn children into good pragmatists, that is, to teach them "to take one thing at a time, and solve their problems co-operatively, with new techniques for new situations" according to the demands of the occasion.
Realism would like to educate the individual for becoming "an unresisting bit of matter". It wants to expose him entirely to the almighty influence of the all pervading physical law. On the other hand, pragmatism tries to equip the individual with the most up-to-date scientific tricks so that he may meet the tendencies of the biological and social environment successfully while, at the same time introducing the necessary changes also therein. The realist does not reconcile with the puzzles of the free will, but for
the pragmatist they do not exist at all. He rejects them on the ground that they are pure fiction. Therefore, in the educational realm the pragmatist gives importance to the fact of actual experience alone. The pragmatist view of education rebels against idealism which rests upon a basis transcending actual experiences. The Absolute simply does not exist for the pragmatist. Therefore, the pragmatist turns away from the transcendental aspects of idealism. He wants to train the individual in such a way as not to proceed from disappointment, but from success to success and success of that kind which is meaningful to human beings in human situations. Thus according to pragmatism, the aim of education is to adjust the free, conscious, human being to the biological and social environment in a creative manner, because the individual is not only expected to adjust himself in the environment as it is, but he is also expected to improve upon it if his needs so demand.
PRAGMATISM AND THE CURRICULUM
The pragmatist believes that problems tend to occur singly, one after another. Therefore he does not recognise the utility of systematic 'subjects', as the realist does. He does not like that a student should become specialist in a subject, but may know nothing about anything else. He may tolerate a systematic collection of books for the purpose of reference, but he would not like that the student should become a
book-worm. He wants to use a subject-matter for training a student in suitable techniques, techniques for directing and controlling coming events. The aim of studying books is to learn new techniques for applying to new problems. Thus the pragmatist is sceptical about objective information.
Objective information, if gathered, will be gathered only for the purpose of solving some problem. The realist wants to make the student a walking encyclopedia, whereas the purpose of the pragmatist is to give the student up-to-date scientific tricks for solving problems at hand. The above view indicates that the child should be given worthwhile experiences. Therefore the curriculum should include such
subjects which may give the necessary skills to the student.
Language, hygiene, history, geography, physical training, sciences, agricultural science for boys and domestic science for girls should comprise the curriculum. Needless to say that these subjects will be studied for their usefulness, and there will be no disinterested pursuit of knowledge. With regard to curriculum, pragmatism wants to follow the child's natural interests at the Thus in the curriculum it is
the child who is emphasised, and not the book, the subject, or the teacher. If rich experience is given to the child, he will get the best possible education. Pragmatism protests against the formality in instruction and considers learning as an active process rather than a passive acceptance of facts.
Dewey analyzes the interests of the child into four groups:
• "The interest in conversation or communication;
• In inquiry, or finding out things;
• In making things or construction; and
• In artistic expression."
To Dewey these are the natural resources, and it is on the exercise of these that the active growth of the child depends. The child must know the arts of reading, writing, and counting in order to follow out these interests. The child will master these arts not as ends, but as tools. Therefore, the elementary school curriculum should include reading, writing, counting, nature study, handwork and drawing. Hardwork and drawing will be then for construction and artistic expression—the other two natural interests of the child. Thus pragmatist curriculum is concerned with the realities of child nature and of life. The contents of the curriculum will be selected from different activities of real life. The activities of real life to be incorporated in the curriculum be free and purposive and they should be connected with the community of which the school is a part. The pragmatist thinks that if the activities are thus socialized, they will develop moral virtues and power of initiative, independence, and self-discipline. The pragmatist does not want to divide the curriculum into independent subjects as water-tight compartments. He believes in unity of knowledge and skill. Therefore, he wants to follow the principle of integrating in curriculum construction. Accordingly, the subjects should be presented as modes of purposive activities inter-connected by a
common bond. The pragmatist feels that physics and
chemistry bring the student to a systematic realm of
symbolic abstractions and they do not give him experience in concrete realities. He is of the opinion that sociology and psychology acquaint the student with human experience.
Therefore, these subjects should receive more emphasis in the curriculum than physics and chemistry which are very dear to a realist. However, it is noteworthy that the pragmatist is prepared to accept any subject in the curriculum provided it offers the teacher opportunities for training the pupil in the up-to-date scientific techniques for solving human problems at hand. As regards the curriculum, the contrast between the pragmatist and idealist is that of how the subject-matter is used. The idealist wants to use it for developing a transcendental self- consciousness on the part of the student; whereas the
pragmatist uses it for developing an empirical efficiency for solving here and now problems. From the idealist standpoint the pragmatist student passes through the subject without being adequately educated, he is a short-sighted success-seeker and untouched by spiritual consciousness and higher insights which his studies might have given him. Whereas, the pragmatist thinks that the idealist student is lost in a self-projected obscurity which deprives him of any worthwhile success in the world. Thus we may conclude that the realist would emphasize the importance of objective subjects falling in the field of natural science. The idealist would not consider one subject more important than the other, he would emphasise the quality of personal greatness found in a subject in abundance, and also the qualities of personality had by certain teachers.
The pragmatist will attach importance to social sciences, but not on objective side alone. His purpose is to acquire full mastery over the techniques for solving arising problems.
PRAGMATISM AND THE TEACHER
The pragmatist teacher is a pragmatist first, and a teacher afterwards. Pragmatist is primarily interested in the solution of problems as they arise in the biological and social environments. He is a "radical empiricist, essentially an experimentalist, a trial-and -error man" solving problems bit by bit as they arise and adapting himself to the arising situation. The pragmatist teacher adopts this same attitude in the classroom and tries to transmit this attitude to his students as well. The pragmatist teacher does not believe in teaching subjects systematically, for example, when he teaches chemistry, he does not care to follow a textbook systematically. In fact, he does not follow a textbook at all. Instead, he goes from one experiment to another in a disconnected manner. He treats each experiment as complete in itself suggesting further problems of technique and encouraging the pupils to perform further experiments. He suggests problems to the pupils and leads them to follow their solutions themselves. The pragmatist teacher teaches his pupil to do rather than to know things in a pedantic manner. In this respect, he follows the example of Socrates who "taught his pupils to think and act for themselves, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat".
PRAGMATISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
As in the field of curriculum construction, so in the field of methodology, Pragmatism has contributed greatly and in very important ways. This ideology does not uphold any outdated, lifeless and rigidly traditional method of teaching. Pragmatists believe that minds of different children are different. Hence a certain fixed method of teaching cannot be useful to all. For the purpose of developing children on sound lines, both the child and the teacher should together think and formulate the necessary and useful method of teaching which is related to the interests of the child and involves practical work, activities and productive experiences. With this purpose, Pragmatists have laid down the following principles according to which teaching methods may be devised and formulated:
Principle of Learning by Doing : Pragmatism attaches more importance to activity and experience in preference to thoughts or ideas. According to this ideology education should be imparted through activities and practical experiences. Pragmatists firmly hold that activities give rise to new ideas and clarify conceptions. Hence, such purposive activities and conducive experiences should be structured for the child so that he develops necessary insight and capacities to solve the physical and social challenges which confront him from time to time. According to Ryburn, self- experience is our super most and real teacher as one remembers the lessons of his experiences throughout life.
Hence according to this principle, education should provide creative experiences and experimental activities to the child more and more so that he learns by his own efforts and experiences. It must be noted over here that Pagmatism does not merely insist upon practical activities, but tries to provide real life experiences and real life situations so that the child gains the required insight and capacities to face and solve the different problems and challenges of life successfully.
Principle of Purposive Process of Learning : This principle means that a child should try to achieve some aim or goal according to his natural interests, aptitudes, abilities and experiences. According to this principle, Pragmatism opposes bookish knowledge and condemns those methods of teaching which promote abject surrender to the teacher in order to obtain knowledge which may or may not be useful and relevant to the problems and challenges of modern life. Instead of passive reception of knowledge from others, Pragmatism emphasizes self-learning through
self-effort. According to this principle, methods of teaching should provide such conducive experiences and productive practical activities for the benefit of the child and endow him with capacities and powers to face boldly and successfully the problems and challenges of modern life.
Principle of Integration. This principle lays stress upon correlated teaching of all subjects. This is because knowledge is one whole and this principle seeks to maintain unity in diversity. This close relationship in different subjects should be brought about as much as possible. According to Pragmatism only that method is most effective, which brings about and employs this correlation and integration of all subjects, activities and experiences.
PROJECT METHOD
On the foundations of the above mentioned principles,
John Dewey's ardent disciple Kilpatrick formulated a solid and practical method of teaching, which goes by the name of "Project Method". Unlike the old methods of teaching, this method is an active and dynamic method. Through this method, the child learns by his own activities and experiences, the teacher only guiding and suggesting wherever and whenever there is any necessity for such help. The teacher's task is only to create such situations wherein each child is able to identify his problem. Once the problem is identified, each child is free to experiment and gain self experiences of his own planning. All children work
in groups in close cooperation to solve the problem aiding and coordinating their efforts and activities. When the problem is solved, children develop new insights and create new values for their gradual progress and development.
PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE
The pragmatist regards discipline as an external force to check these courses of action which are distasteful or to encourage those that are pleasant. From the pragmatist standpoint, the teacher who depends upon rewards and punishments for getting works done by pupils is a very poor teacher. There is no place for a strict and rigid disciplinarian in a pragmatist school. A moralist, duty-for-duty-sake man, a holier than- thou practitioner will find no place in a pragmatist school. The activities of the school are to be so organized as to make them fit in with the needs of a pupil's nervous system, and also with his earnest desire to make him a fit citizen of the world around him. Under such circumstances, there will be no need of discipline of the realist kind. The pragmatist student overcomes his
difficulties joyfully and he does not need any reward for the same. If the activity is directed towards the student's self-expression, no appeal will be necessary to "sheer strength of will" not will the teacher be required to make things interesting to the child. Some authorities are of the opinion that "the student should work at his work and play at his play". But the pragmatist says that the work and play may naturally go together. Therefore, it is quite safe to expect a child "to play at his work and to work at his play". Dewey says, "Play is not to be identified with anything which the child externally does. It rather designates his mental attitude in its entirety and in its unity. It is the free play, the interplay, of all the child's powers, thoughts, and physical movements, in embodying, in a satisfying form, his own images and interests". If the work in the school are so arranged as to appeal to the natural interests of the student the problem of discipline will not exist at all.
Finally, I conclude that the realist believes in discipline, "in the cultivation of objectivity", and in "the submission of the self, to the forces of physical reality." The idealist discards external control as a method of discipline. He believes in the cultivation of a subjective power towards the development of a transcendental self free of all forces within and without. The pragmatist, too, rejects external control as a method of discipline—but for a different purpose. He does not recognise the value of transcendental self. To him the interest of the child is strictly empirical,
biological, and social. Hence to him the problem of discipline is meaningless.
PRAGMATISM AND SCHOOL
Pragmatists regard school as a social institution where the child gains real experiences of actual life which develop in him social sense and a sense of duty towards society and the nation. John Dewey maintains that school is a "Miniature Society" where a child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interests, aptitudes and capacities. Group games, working in laboratories and' studying in libraries with others are the various activities and experiences which inculcate in children social qualities, social attitudes together with a spirit of mutual help and
cooperative activities. In this way, according to Pragmatism the school is not a centre of education alone but it is also a community centre of various activities and experiences.
John Dewey rightly asserts—"School should be the true representative of society."
MERITS OF PRAGMATISM
Importance of Child. Opposing bookish knowledge and formal education, Pragmatism lays great stress upon the development of child's individuality by his own efforts. This makes education child-centred.
Emphasis on Activity. Instead of ideas, Pragmatism
emphasizes upon activity. Thus, the principle of "Learning by Doing" is the main contribution of Pragmatism. Faith in Applied Life. Pragmatism emphasizes the practical life of child. Thus, Pragmatic education prepares the child for future life in a very effective manner.
Infusion of New Life in Education. Pragmatism has
revolutionized the process of education to a very great
extent. This has infused a new life and zest in education. The concepts of "New Education", "Progressive Education" and "Activity centred curriculum" which have changed the face of education, are the contributions of Pragmatism.
Social and Democratic Education. Pragmatism infuses in a child a spirit of freedom initiative, equality and also a sense of responsibility in relation to rights and duties of a citizen. This develops in the child love for democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and development of personality.
Progressive and Optimistic Attitude. Pragmatic attitude is optimistic and progressive. In other words, Pragmatism emphasizes the qualities of freedom, initiative, expression, conducive experiences, congenial environment, purposeful creativity and development of human values for the welfare of whole mankind.
Construction of Project Method. In the field of methods of teaching, Pragmatism has given birth to 'Project' method. Through this method, a child indulging in various creative activities, is able to solve many problems which cater to this natural progress and development.
DEMERITS OF PRAGMATISM
No Pre-determined Aims of Education. According to Pragmatism, there are no pre- determined aims of life. Hence, there are no set and pre-determined aims of education as well. In the absence of definite aims of
education, all educational plans and efforts may go astray and achieve nothing.
Opposition of Pre-determined Ideals and Values.
Pragmatism opposes pre-determined ideals and values. This ideology emphasizes that ideals and values are man-made and change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. But in fact, all noble things have entered into this human world by the efforts of those great persons who were inspired by the great ideals namely—Truth, Beauty and Goodness. These ideals are not man-made.
They are eternal and absolute and have been guiding the efforts of human beings to develop more and more since the dawn of human civilization.
Opposition to Eternal Truths. Pragmatism is opposed to predetermined truth. According to it, truth changes according to a change in circumstances, times and places and is created by the consequences of our actions and experiences. Pragmatists hold that if the results of an activity are satisfying, then it is true otherwise not. This view of Pragmatists regarding truth is not acceptable to Idealists. According to Idealism truth is truth. It does not and cannot change at all.
Opposition of Intellectuality. Pragmatists believe that a man's intelligence is subservient to his innate tendencies. This makes him only an animal. As .a matter of fact, it is the intelligence which reforms, moulds and sublimates the basic raw tendencies into human qualities. Intelligence is not the slave but the master of basic tendencies of the individual.
Negation of Spiritual Values. Pragmatists deny the
existence of spiritual values. They attach greater importance to material welfare of this world. Negligence of spiritual values is a great blunder. Without developing spiritual values achieving human welfare, peace and satisfaction is simply to cry for the moon.
Negation of Past. Pragmatism, emphasizing only the
present and future, neglects the past. As a matter of fact, the past is equally important as the present and future. The reason of this fact is that the root of present lies in the past. Without the knowledge of past one cannot understand the present and without knowing the present thoroughly nothing can be predicted for the future.
Condemnation of Formal Education. Condemning formal education, Pragmatism advocates that all knowledge should be acquired through direct personal experiences. But knowledge is so vast and the span of life of short, that it is quite impossible to receive all knowledge through direct experiences. Hence, acquiring all knowledge needs personal experiences and formal education both.
Opposition of Monism. Like Idealism and Naturalism Pragmatism does not accept the truth of 'Monism'. According to this ideology, truths are many. Hence, Pragmatists believe in 'Pluralism' which is not proper. Difficulty in the Construction of Curriculum. Pragmatism mphasizes that all knowledge is to be gained from experiences of life. It is not an easy task. Selecting a project and construction of curriculum to gain all knowledge from life experiences is very difficult.
Pragmatism is a Method Only. Unlike other Philosophical Doctrines, Pragmatism does not lay down any aims, ideals and values of life to be pursued by human beings. Hence, Pragmatism cannot be termed as a philosophy of life.
William James has himself admitted this fact in his writings that Pragmatism is not a philosophy of life but only a method of education, growth and development. In the words of William James—"There is absolutely nothing new in the pragmatic method. It is just empirical attitude. It has no dogmas and no doctrines save its methods.
SUMMARY OF PRAGMATISM
Exponents (1) C.B.Pearce, (2) William James, (3) Schiller, (4) John Dewey, (5) Kilpatrick and others.
Fundamentals Principles (1) Pragmatism does not believe in God or spiritual values. It has full faith in man.
(2) It uphold the power of man as supreme.
(3) Spiritual principles are not universal. They change according to change in times, circumstances and situation.
(4) Values are not predetermined. They are in the making.
(5) Fully, psychological and humanistic viewpoint.
(6) It is a pluralistic concept.
Principles of Education
(1) Education is based on psychology and science.
(2) It emphasizes experiment and practice.
(3) Child is the focal point of all educational activities. (4) It opposes book learning.
(5) Only sociability is emphasized.
(6) It is a progressive, dynamic and changeable ideology.
Aims of Education
(1) Aims of educational are not predetermined.
(2) Educational aims change according to times places and circumstances.
(3) More education.
(4) Creation of new values.
(5) Social adjustment and harmonious development.
Curriculum
(1) Pragmatic Curriculum is based on subjects of utility, its main principle being utilitarian.
(2) Social subjects form the hygiene and science, Physical Culture, History, Geography, Maths, Home Science, Science and Agriculture etc.
Methods of Teaching
Pragmatists have emphasised the principles of
(1) Purposive processes of learning,
(2) Learning by doing and by experience and
(3) Correlation and integration.
On the basis of these principles Kilpatrick has given birth to Project method, a method which is widely accepted and used in the field of education.
Teacher
(1) Teacher's role is that of a friend, philosopher and guide.
(2) Teacher puts the child in such a position so that he learns to create new values for future.
Discipline
Pragmatism emphasizes admitted emancipator or social discipline.
School
(1) According to Pragmatism, school is a laboratory
for experiments to be done by children.
(2) It is a society in miniature
Prepared by
Sabarish P (MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
