Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 08
FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION
Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
Precise notes.
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INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
Philosophy of Pragmatism is mainly an American concept which came into prominence after 1850 but due to its impact on human life similar theories were developed by the philosophers of England and Germany. The word 'pragmatism' has been derived from the Greek word Pragmatikos' which means practicability or utility, thus the philosophy of pragmatism is founded on the principle that first the activity or experiment is done and then on the
basis of results, principles or ideas are derived. Therefore application of this philosophy in education aims at having an educational system which makes the individual perfect in practical life and hence it was widely accepted by the intellectuals without much hesitation. Here under an attempts is being made to highlight some vital details concerning pragmatism in brief: Pragmatism is philosophical movement that has come to prominence during the last hundred years, but has been called "a new name for an old way of thinking." It is a philosophy that strongly reflects some of the characteristics of American life. Pragmatism is connected with such names as Charles Peirce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John
Dewey (1859-1952). Pragmatism has also been called
instrumentalism and experimentalism. While it has had its main development in America, similar theories have been set forth in England by Arthur Balfour and F.C.S. Schiller, and in Germany by Hans Vaihinger. The Greeks discussed the question as to the relative values of the speculative and the practical lives, and Aristotle had not the slightest hesitation in awarding the superiority to the speculative life on the ground that the speculative activity is the only one that is prized for its own sake. The modern pragmatist inverts the Greek conclusion, and with as little hesitation as Aristotle contends that the true is the name of whatever proves itself to be good, that is, the truth or validity of a principle or belief depends upon its effect on practice; the pragmatist thus subordinates speculative to practical activity. The pragmatic attitude is modern and typically English or Anglo Saxon. The germ of the utilitarian or pragmatic spirit is to be traced to Bacon's introduction of the view that knowledge was to be sought for the glory of the creator and the relief of man's estate; his aim was to
establish a trustworthy system whereby nature might be interpreted and brought into the service of man.
Locke in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding adopts what is practically the pragmatic standpoint; in Book I, he affirms, "we shall not have much reason to complain of the narrowness of our minds, if we will but employ them about what may be of use to us," and in the Introduction, "our business is not to know all things, but those which concern our conduct." Eraser, commenting on this latter statement, remarks that this might be the motto of the Essay, and the watchword of English philosophy which characteristically seeks to keep in direct relation to life and conduct.
HISTORY OF PRAGMATISM
The history of the term itself is given by Prof. James in his work entitled Pragmatism as follows: "The term is derived from the same Greek word pragma meaning action, from which our words 'practice' and 'practical' come. It was first introduced into philosophy by Mr. Charles Peirce in 1978. In an article entitled "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," In the Popular Science Monthly for January of that year, Mr. Peirce, after pointing out that our beliefs are really rules for action, said that, to develop a thought's meaning, we need only determine what conduct it is fitted to produce: that conduct is for us its sole significance, and the tangible fact at the root of all our thought-distinctions,
however subtle, is that there is no one of them so fine as to consist in anything but a possible difference of practice.
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PRAGMATISM
Meaning of Pragmatism
Etymologically the word Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word 'Pragma' which means activity or the work done. Some other scholars think that the word Pragmatism has been derived from the Greek word 'Pragmatikos' which means practicability or utility.
Thus, according to this ideology great importance is laid upon practicability and utility. Pragmatists firmly hold that first the activity or experiment is done and then on the basis of results, principle or ideas are derived. Hence, Pragmatism is also known as Experimentalism or consequentialism. It is called Experimentalism because Pragmatists believe experiment as the only criterion of Truth. To them Truth, Reality, Goodness or Badness are all relative terms. These concepts are not predetermined and
absolute. They are proved by man's own experiences.
Further, Pragmatists believe that truth are many and they are all in the making. Man researches these areas only by means of his own experiments and experiences. Hence, only those things are true which can be verified by experiments. Pragmatists also hold that whatever was true yesterday, need not be the same today. Under these circumstances, no definite and determined principle of current use can stop the world from moving forward on the path of progress.
Pragmatism is called consequentialism because any human activity is evaluated in terms of its consequences or results.
If the activity results in some utility, then it is true
otherwise not. It may be noted that the fundamental start of Pragmatism is 'Change'. In this sense no truth is absolute and permanent. It is always changing from time to time, from place to place and from circumstances to circumstances. Thus those ideas and values which are useful in one set of circumstances, times and places, need not prove to be the same in changed circumstances, places and times. Hence, Pragmatists, unlike the Idealists, do not believe in fixed, eternal and absolute values of life to be
followed in all times, places and circumstances. They also do not uphold any predetermined philosophy of life. To them, only those ideals and values are true which result in some utility to mankind in a certain set of circumstances, places and times. The above discussion clearly lays down that Pragmatism is very intimately connected with human life and human welfare. It is why, it is called a humanistic philosophy of life also. In a nutshell, one can say that where
Naturalism is neutrocentric, Idealism is psychocentric,
Pragmatism is anthropo- centric according to which, man's own experiences are the centres of reality and truth.
The chief propounders of Pragmatism are C.S. Pearce,
William James, Shiller and John Dewey. William James has called Pragmatism as a middle stage between Idealism and Naturalism. Idealism also emphasizes human development as Pragmatism does. The only difference between the two is that while idealism emphasizes the pursuit of pre-determined ideals and values for human growth.
Pragmatism stresses that ideals and values are not
predetermined and absolute, but they are in the making through a process of change. As such, each individual has to decide about his own ideals and values to pursue for his own development. Hence, like dynamic Idealism Pragmatism lays emphasis upon man made ideals and values which are the results of some human activities and experiments. It may further be noted that there are points of similarity between Pragmatism and Naturalism also.
Both emphasize the study of child and his nature and both hold the same view that creative powers and constructive propensities in a child are the gifts of his inherent nature.
Here ends the similarity between the two but both widely differ in their approach to human growth and
development. While Naturalism tries to develop the
individuality of a child in a company of Nature, far away from all human society, Pragmatism emphasizes to develop the child in and through human society. To conclude the discussion, we can say that Pragmatism and dynamic Idealism speak the same language about man-made ideals and values whereas Pragmatism and Naturalism hold similar views about the study of a child and his inherent nature. The truth is that both Pragmatism and Idealism will come very close to each other if the former becomes dynamic Idealism, the difference will be much lessened in their approach to life and the humanistic philosophy of life.
Definition of Pragmatism
The following definitions of Pragmatism by various scholars are being given to make the meaning more clear:
(1) "Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of knowledge, and a theory of reality."—Gomes B. Prett
(2) "Pragmatism is essentially a humanistic philosophy,
maintaining that man creates his own values in the course of activity that reality is still in the making and awaits its part of completion from the future, that to an unascertainable extent our truth are man-made products." —J.S. Ross
(3) "Pragmatism is a temper of mind, an attitude, it
is also a theory of the nature of ideas and truth, and finally it is a theory about reality." —William James
Pragmatism is an attitude, a method and a philosophy that uses the practical consequences of ideas and beliefs as a standard for determining their value and truth. William James defined pragmatism as "the attitude looking away first things, principle, categories', supposed necessities, and of looking towards last things, fruits, consequences, facts."
Pragmatism places greater emphasis on method and
attitude than on systematic philosophical doctrine. It is the method of experimental inquiry extended into all realms of human experience. Pragmatism uses the modern scientific method as the basis of a philosophy. Its affinity is with the sciences, especially the biological and social sciences, and it aims to utilize the scientific spirit and scientific knowledge to deal with all human problems, including those of ethics and religion. The pragmatists are critical of the older
systems of philosophy, such as the various forms of
materialism, idealism, and realism. They say that
philosophy in the past has made the mistake of looking for ultimate, absolutes, eternal essences, substances, fixed principles, and metaphysical "block systems." The pragmatists emphasize empirical science and the changing world and its problems, and nature as the all- inclusive reality beyond which we cannot go. For John Dewey, experience is central. Experience is the result of the interaction of the organism and its environment. While pragmatism as systematic philosophy is comparatively recent, similar attitudes and ideas can be found in the works of a number of earlier thinkers. The word pragmatism was used by Kant to describe rules and standards based on experience as distinct from those he thought were above are beyond experience. He appealed to our moral nature, especially man's sense of duty, and to
the will to establish the truth of certain beliefs, such as those in freedom, God, and immortality. His principle of the "primacy of practical reason" anticipated pragmatism to some extent.
PRAGMATISM IN PHILOSOPHY
Dewey, James, Pearce and Schiller may be regarded as the four chief exponents of pragmatism in philosophy. I do not propose here to enter into the academic details of pragmatism. I only try to give below the essence of pragmatism. For the sake of clarification, I compare it also with idealism and realism. Pragmatism is a midway between naturalism and idealism. It criticises the impersonal interpretation of existence as forwarded by naturalism, and rebels against the academic and orthodox absolutism of idealism.
Pragmatism holds that whatever fulfils one's purposes and develops his life is true. Only those theories are true which work in practical situations. There are no absolute ideas. All ideas are relative to the situations in which they arise and they are subject to continuous verification by consequences. Experiences are of various nature and they are always changing. So no final, eternal valid system of ideas or values can be fixed up. There are no ideas or values which are true for all the times. Man has to create his own values. If there are any truths, they are man-made products. They are not divine, and they are not eternal. Pragmatism may be viewed in three forms: humanistic, experimental and biological. To humanistic pragmatism that which fulfils man's purpose is true. Experimental pragmatism regards that as true which can be experimentally verified, in other words, "Whatever works," is true. Biological pragmatism has great faith in man's capacity shaping his own destiny in the environment. It believes that man, by nature, is potentially strong to make a better environment for himself. This is the kind of pragmatism which is more dominant and expressive in modern times. It is also called instrumentalism, because it emphasises thought as an instrument for enabling the human organism to adapt itself to the environment.
Pragmatism thinks that man is essentially a biological and social organism which reacts to biological and social stimulation alone. It believes that life is not abstract and it is never systematic. The Pragmatist regards the sciences of psychology and sociology as more akin to the concrete nature of man's experience than mathematical physics.
Therefore, he calls himself a concrete realist. It is not
surprising then that he is more interested with the problem of the moment and with the immediate future. He thinks that past is past, tomorrow is another day with its own problems amid methods of solution of the same. Evidently today we cannot be certain about the methods of solving problems which may arise in future. Therefore, our attention should be more on the present than on anything else. Idealism has more faith in past and it builds a transcendental ideal beyond human realisation.
Pragmatism revolts against this attitude and holds that which transcends the actualities of human experience is false.Mark the words of Dewey, "Professed idealism turns out to be a narrow pragmatism... The time have arrived for a pragmatism which shall be empirically idealistic, proclaiming the essential connection of intelligence with the unachieved future." Apparently, the pragmatist thus regards himself an empirical idealist, and thinks that his view is in essence more truly idealistic than the daydreams of transcendentalism. Pragmatism rejects
the older beliefs in Truth and Reality considering them as mischievous. It believes that man, a biological organism being in constant interaction with biological and social environments, acts rather than contemplates, produces results rather than sits, thinks and understands. The Self. To the realist 'self is a purely physical affair. To him the "self is a developed system, of which the cerebral structure is the dominating feature... Its reality is the sort of reality we call feeling or sentience." The idealist regards this point of view as a pitiable thing. To him the Self is the ideal source from which we draw all creative power which manifests itself in all the work of the world. Whereas to the pragmatist the Self is a kind of fact. It is not a thing, but a function. The Self is a behaviour symbol— an outcome of a social situation, its permanence or impermanence depends upon the social situation.
Mind : According to realism reality is physical. Therefore, mind consists in the demonstrable physical
changes. Mind and matter consists of the same stuff. Mind is like life. It emerges when many factors—organic and inorganic are present. The idealist does not agree with the realist view of mind. He regards mind as the central core of everything. Mind is not dependent upon a physically objective world for thinking out or discovering anything.
Mind can make itself its own object; and it can discover its own laws. The physical world exists in so far it responds to the demands of mind. Idealism holds that mind is competent to answer any question that it can raise. The vitality and potentiality of the growth of mind has scarcely been tapped. Mind can respond to any call that we can make upon it. Thus according to idealism mind is all powerful. Quite contrary to the above two standpoints, pragmatism believes that 'Mind' is that form of behaviour, especially of the social type, which has a purpose and direction. The pragmatist insist on mind being behaviour, activity, interactivity with a biological and social environment. Evidently, like the idealist, he does not think that mind is permanent or eternal. To him mind must change with the elements which cause change. Thus mind is
not a substance or matter, as the realist thinks. Mind is only a function. Knowledge. We have seen that realism bases scientific knowledge upon sensory observation, and upon experiments which can be verified by our senses. Thus realism admits no possibility of doubts. The realist knows, he knows that he knows, and he knows what he knows. The realist does not like to call a theory of knowledge, because it is a simple statement of obvious fact. To the idealist, it is not the sensations which are the chief source of knowledge. He regards the mind as the starting point, and an originator of all knowledge. We have already referred to above that mind has its own laws. It can select, analyse, synthesize and unify all its experiences in systematic ways. To the idealist the reality is spiritual, and to understand this is to have knowledge. Pragmatism disregards both the above standpoints of knowledge. It regards 'system' of knowledge with suspicion. It does not believe in sensations as originators of knowledge. The pragmatist is always conscious of the true business of living beings. He is more concerned with the 'successful' action in a world of biological and social concrete situations. So knowledge must come out as a result of experience.
FORMS OF PRAGMATISM
There are three forms of Pragmatism as under:
Humanistic Pragmatism.
According to this ideology, only those things or principles are true which satisfy the needs, requirements, aspirations and objectives of human beings and cater to the welfare of mankind. In other words, that which satisfies the human nature is only true and real. Humanistic Pragmatists believe "Whatever fulfils my purpose, satisfies my desire develops my life, is true."
Biological Pragmatism.
According to Biological Pragmatism, that power or capacity of a human being is valuable and important which enables him to adjust with the environment or which makes him able to change his environment according to his needs and requirements. The chief protagonist of this ideology was John Dewey of America who proclaimed. "By this type of Pragmatism test is found in the function of thought, in adapting the human organism to environment."
Experimental Pragmatism.
According to his ideology, that thing or principle is true which can be verified as true by experiment. Hence, according to Experimental Pragmatists, "Whatever can be experimentally verified is true or what works is true." The above thinking regards thought as a means to solve any problematic situation to achieve adjustment and harmony. Hence, it is sometimes named as Instrumentalism. John Dewey propounded this theory while working at Chicago University. Hence, this ideology is also called as "Chicago School of Thought."
PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
Problems as the Motives of Truth : According to Pragmatism, human life is like a laboratory wherein each individual undertakes various experiments to solve the problems which confront him in course of his growth and development. The success of the experiment is a search of truth. Hence, problems are the motivating force for the search of truth.
Truth is Formed by its Result. According to Pragmatists, truth is not a fixed and definite entity. According to them truth is a relative term which changes according to the stages of development and situations which confront a person in his process of growth and progress. The chief reason of this is that change in situations thrown up new problems to be solved by new thoughts and new efforts.
Out of these thoughts only that thought of the whole lot is true which serves to solve the problems and attain the desired result. Hence, Pragmatists firmly hold that it is the result which goes to form or build a truth. In other words, truth is not absolute or predetermined for all times to come. According to this ideology only those things are true for us which develop our personality to the full and which conduce to individual good and welfare of others as well.
Changing Nature of Truth : Pragmatists do not believe in predetermined truth. According to them truth always changes according to time, place and situation. They also believed that a thing which is true to an individual at a specific time, place and situation, need not be true to others or to any one else at some other place or time. Hence, a certain thing which was true to a person yesterday, need not be the same for him today or will remain the same for tomorrow. In short, according to Pragmatism, truth is always changing according to times, places and situations. Pointing out towards this fact William James writes—"The truth of an idea is not a stagnant property inherent in it. Truth happens to an idea." Emphasis on the Principle of Utility. Pragmatism is a
utilitarian ideology which holds that the reality of a
principle lies in its utility. Any idea or thing which is useful to us, is proper and right. In case it is of no use, it is improper, wrong and untrue. In other words, only those ideas and things are true which have a utility for man. In the words of William James —"It is true because it is useful."
Emphasis on Social and Democratic Values : Pragmatism holds that man is a social being. He is born in society and all his development takes place in and through society. Hence, pragmatists uphold social and democratic attitudes and values.
Opposition to Fixed Ideals and Values : According to Pragmatism, ideals and values of life are not predetermined and fixed. Pragmatists firmly hold that values and ideals of life are man-made and they change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. As such, human life is a laboratory wherein each individual indulges in ever new experiments and experiences according to his mental
capacity to explore, investigate and search out relevant ideals and values. Except this mental capacity, there is no other force in this creation which reflects the divine power of God's will. To the Pragmatists God is not infinite, absolute and immoral entity as the Idealists proclaim. To them, God and Soul are not immortal and infinite. These entities as well as the religion are useful to human beings only when they serve usefully to develop human personalities, otherwise pragmatism shows an indifference towards moral and spiritual ideals and values.
Importance of Activity : Pragmatism lays great emphasis on activity rather than on ideas. Pragmatists hold the view that ideas are born out of activities. Man is an active being. He learns by his activities which he is always engaged in on his long path of life. Thus, the greatest contribution of Pragmatism to education is this principle of learning by doing.
Importance of Manpower : Pragmatism attaches great importance to the power of man. By virtue of this power, a man can create an environment useful, beneficial and conducive to his own development and welfare of society.
Faith in Present and Future : Pragmatism does not stick to the past. According to this ideology each individual has to solve the problems of his present and future life. Hence, the present and the immediate future are to great value to an individual. The past is dead and gone, says Pragmatism. Thus, it is of no use to think and talk about what is dead and gone.
Opposition to Social Customs and Traditions : Pragmatism is deadly against to old customs, traditions, restrictions and taboos. It believes in the realities of life. Hence, it does not concern itself with things which confuse and often mislead human intelligence. It gives great importance to human intelligence and mental capacity which brings about harmonious and progressive adjustment with environment which results in human welfare and happiness.
Reality Still in the Making : To Pragmatists future is more helpful and bright in comparison with the present. Hence, to call the present world as fully made up, absolutely beautiful and complete is wrong. The world is still the process of formation and development. Man is to aid this process of formation to such an extent that all the needs and requirements of human beings are fully satisfied. In this sense Pragmatic attitude is optimistic, progressive and developing. According to William James—"For Naturalism, reality is ready-made and complete from all entirety, while for Pragmatism it is still in the making and awaits its part of completion from the future."
Faith in Pluralism : About the absolute supreme reality there are three views and beliefs. First is Monoism. Second is Dualism and the third is Pluralism. Pragmatism upholds the third, Pluralism. According to it, experience is the test of truth. Those ideals or values which are testified by experiences are true and real. As such, pragmatic truths are many. Man's experiences will prove the validity of an idea
or thing to be real and true. According to Rusk— "Naturalism reduce everything to life, idealism to mind or spirit. Pragmatism sees no necessity for seeking one fundamental principle of explanation. It is quite content to admit several principles and accordingly pluralistic."
Faith in Flexibility : Pragmatism firmly believes that nothing is fixed and final in this world. Everything grows, changes and develops. In other words, the world is changing and everything is under a process of change. Human life is also changing. A human being encounters various problems in his life. To find solutions to these problems, he employs all his mental faculties, learns from all his experiments and experiences, uses all his resources of new ideas and
experiences to forge ahead on the path of progress and development.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRAGMATIC EDUCATION The following are the main characteristics of Pragmatic education:
Education as Growth. According to Pragmatism society is undergoing a process of continual change. Education should also correspond its activities and organisation to suit the change in society. Then only education will be a useful process to bring about the growth and development of individual as well as of society of which he is an integral part. It may be noted that the process of social growth today is very rapid in comparison with the conditions about sixty years ago. Thus, nobody can make any definite prediction now about the future conditions and situations of society. Hence, educating a child according to age old traditions, beliefs and methods is sheer waste of time and energy. In the scientific age of today, nobody can say that the son of a farmer will become a farmer and the son of a doctor or engineer will also become a doctor or engineer. This prediction could be made about sixty years ago, but such predictions are quite meaningless today. The truth is that education is meant for the child and not the child for education. Pragmatists condemn the belief that a child's mind is "an empty bottle to be filled by outside knowledge." According to them each child is born with inherent tendencies, aptitudes and capacities which are drawn out and developed by education. Pragmatic education develops the inherent capacities of the child according to his interests, inclinations and aptitudes in such a way that by his own efforts he creates his own values which equip him to face all eventual problems of life which he encounters at various times and under various situations. In this way, according to Pragmatism, education to be real and true, must develop all the inherent capacities of the child to the fullest extent.
Education as Life : Pragmatists firmly believe that old and traditional education is dead and lifeless. It provides to the child cooked up knowledge which dulls his spirit of investigation and makes him a passive recipient without any dynamism and push. Real knowledge can be gained only by activity, experiments and real life experiences. Thus, to develop the child fully it is greatly essential to provide him opportunities to participate in more and more activities and experiments so that he creates his own values and leads a better, richer and happier life.
Education as Continuous Reconstruction of Experiences.
Pragmatism holds that education is development and not mere bookish knowledge. Pragmatists firmly believe that knowledge is not fixed and predetermined. It changes according to times and circumstances. Thus, pragmatists condemn knowledge for the sake of knowledge or forcing it into the mind of child. They emphasize that real knowledge is gained by experiments and experiences conducted by the
child himself. One experience leads to another and then to many others. Thus, the area of knowledge is widened gradually by the child himself. These experiences transform the behaviour patterns of the child which in turn structure other experiences. Thus, the process of reconstruction of experiences goes on continually which leads to adjustment and development of personality. In this way, according to
John Dewey—"It is a process of reconstruction of
reinstitution of experiences."
Education as a Responsibility of State : The modern age is an age of democracy. In this age education is the birth right of each individual. Hence, the State should shoulder the whole responsibility regarding the education of the child. If the State does not discharge this obligation efficiently, the whole nation will suffer and lag behind on the road of success. Hence, Pragmatism insists that the State should shoulder the responsibility regarding the education of each child to the full to make the child capable and confident to meet the problems and challenges of life successfully.
Education as a Social Process : To Pragmatism, man is a social being. He is integrally related to all human beings as to his family and kinsmen. He gains more and more knowledge through personal experiences than he gets from books. Thus, according to Pragmatism, the education of the child should be through the medium of society so that it develops in him socially desirable qualities which promote
his welfare and happiness. John Dewey rightly speaks out— "Education is the social continuity of life."
Prepared by
Sabarish P (MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
