LANGUAGE
ACROSS
THE CURRICULUM-BEd Notes
Unit 4 – Creating language for classroom communication
Prepared by
Sabarish P
Contents
Language of explanation, questioning, reinforcing, illustrating
Explanation
Explaining is an activity which shows the relationships among various concepts, ideas, events or phenomenon. During teaching in a classroom , an explanation is a set of interrelated statements elaborating a concept being taught or learnt.
The skill of explaining is defined as an act of bringing about an understanding in some one about a concept, a principle or a phenomenon. Explaining is essential a verbal skill and has two main aspects- selection of appropriate statements interrelating and using the selected statements.
CATEGORIES OF EXPLANATION
INTERPRETIVE EXPLANATION- to make clear the meaning of terms, statements, situation, concepts etc.
What?
DESCRIPTIVE EXPLANATION- descriptions of objects, phenomena, structures, processes
How?
REASON GIVING EXPLANATION- principles and generalizations and causes
Why?
COMPONENTS OF EXPLAINING SKILL
DESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS
Introductory statement
Concluding statement
Use of explaining links
Use of visual techniques
Interesting to the students
Defining technical words
Testing students understanding
UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS
Irrelevant statement
Lack of continuity
Lack of fluency
Vague words & phrases
Introductory statement
To draw and maintain students attention
Give clue for the explanation
Gives overall picture of explanation
Concluding statement
Towards the end to summarize
Present consolidate picture
To draw logical inference
Use of explaining links
Certain linking words and phrases
Bring continuity in statements
Generally conjunctions or prepositions eg. As a result of, because, hence, therefore etc.
Use of visual techniques
“One picture is worth ten thousand words”
Blackboard, charts, model, picture etc.
Technical words defined
Properly defined
If not explanation becomes difficult
Interesting to students
By giving examples from daily life
Use simple sentences
Different media of communication
Testing students understanding
Asking appropriate questions
Few simple questions
Interesting to students
By giving examples from daily life
Use simple sentences
Different media of communication
UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR
Irrelevant statements
When not related to the concept
Create confusion, distraction
Lack of continuity
Break in sequence of ideas or information
When statement is not logically related to previous
There is no sequence of place & time
Statements are irrelevant
Lack of fluency
When teacher does not speak clearly
Incomplete and half sentence
Use of vague words and phrases
Do not give explicit idea about concept
Hinders students understanding
For eg. May, actually, you know, somewhat
Questioning
Questioning is a major form of human thought and interpersonal communication. A question is a linguistic expression used to make a request for information, or the request made using such an expression. The information requested should be provided in the form of an answer.
Purpose of Questioning (by the teacher)
To develop interest and motivate students to become actively involved in lessons
To evaluate students’ preparation and check on homework or seatwork completion
To develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes
To review and summarize previous lessons
To nurture insights by exposing new relationships
To assess achievement of instructional goals and objectives
To stimulate students to pursue knowledge on their own
Question – Types
The major types of questions fall into four categories:
Managerial: questions which keep the classroom operations moving;
Rhetorical: questions used to emphasize a point or to reinforce an idea or statement;
Closed: questions used to check retention or to focus thinking on a particular point; and
Open: questions used to promote discussion or student interaction.
Another classification of questions include:
Socratic“ or Elicitation questions
Convergent questions vs. divergent questions
Display questions vs. referential questions
Socratic or Elicitation questions
A methodological approach often found in language as well as in content classrooms is to structure a lesson by, so to speak, hopping from a question to the next one, using the learners‘answers as point of departure for the next question. To follow his or her plan, the teacher cannot proceed with the lesson until the expected answer is given by a learner. This approach can be referred to as the Socratic method “(Chaudron 1988) or Elicitation method“(Nunan 1991).
Convergent questions vs. divergent questions
The perfect convergent (closed-ended) question would have only one answer and the perfect divergent (open-ended) question would have infinite answers.
Convergent questions (closed) have direct answers (What is 2 + 2?). They are generally used to focus on something.
What is your name?
What is in that container?
What are you doing?
What kind of animal has six legs?
What is the last book you read?
Divergent questions (open-ended) have indirect answers (How can we use this battery?). They are generally used to try and encourage a number of answers and lead to critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving.
What does the name Miranda make you think?
What could you put in the container?
What else could you be doing?
What different representations can be made for three groups of four?
If we go outside and find an animal with six legs, what will it look like?
How were the last two books you read different?
Display questions vs. referential questions
A display question is a type of question where the questioner already knows the answer. Display questions are used in language education in order to elicit language practice. They are contrasted with referential questions, questions for which the answer is not yet known. The use of referential questions is generally preferred to the use of display questions in communicative language teaching.
Some Different Types of Questioning
Closed Questions: That seek short answers.
Chunking Questions: Chunk up and down for more or less detail.
Clear Questions: That are simple and unambiguous.
Columbo Technique: Asking stupid questions that get the answers you want.
Double Bind Questions: Whichever way you answer, the result is the same.
Echo Questions: Repeat what they say as a question.
Empowering Questions: That release limits on people.
Funnel Questioning: Seeking more detail or more general information.
Group Questioning: Tips for asking questions of many people at once.
Interrogation Questions: Questions that lead to answers.
Kipling Questions: Rudyard Kipling's six servants.
Leading Questions: That may or may not be a good thing for you.
Open Questions: For long and detailed answers.
Open and Closed Questions: yes/no or long answer.
Positive Questions: Deliberately leading the other person.
Probing Questions: Specific questions for finding detail.
Provocative Rider: Wind them up with a secondary question.
Rhetorical Questions: Questions without answers.
Socratic Questioning: Socrates' method of questioning in order to elicit learning.
Tag Questions: Some questions encourage agreement, don't they?
Questions based on Blooms taxonomy(Topic : Fishes & whales)
Knowledge questions.
Where are the major fishing grounds?
What is the quantity of fish caught?
Where are the major whales?
What do the major whales eat?
Comprehension questions.
What are some reasons why fish are plentiful in these regions?
What relationship is there to fish and whales?
Application questions.
If you went fishing where would you fish?
If you were a whale where would you fish?
Analysis questions.
What are the characteristics of a good fishing place?
What are the environmental factors for whale survival?
What trends are there in fish populations?
What trends are there in whale populations?
Synthesis questions.
What needs to be done to maintain the fish population?
What needs to be done to maintain the whale population?
Evaluation questions
Should something be done to maintain the fish population?
Should something be done to maintain the whale population?
Creativity question - Candle problem
Fix and light a candle on wall in a way so the candle wax won't drip onto the table below. To do so, one may only use the following along with the candle:
a box of matches
a box of thumbtacks
The Candle Problem
The Candle Problem is a classic test of creative problem solving developed by psychologist Karl Duncker in 1945. Subjects are given a candle, a box of thumbtacks, and a book of matches, and asked to affix the lit candle to the wall so that it will not drip wax onto the table below. The test challenges functional fixedness, a cognitive bias that makes it difficult to use familiar objects in abnormal ways.
Effective Questioning
Decide on the purpose of questions.
Minimise the use of "yes / no" questions except when checking meaning and understanding or encouraging weaker students.
Ask a balance of referential and display questions.
Use open-ended (divergent) questions to encourage opinions, elaboration and discussion.
Ask questions about important rather than trivial content.
Grade language in questions and try not to over-paraphrase.
Avoid questions that contain the answer.
Make sure that students clearly understand questions.
Spread questions randomly around the class.
Balance questions to the whole class with individual student nomination.
Give enough time for students to answer.
Anticipate students' responses.
SKILL OF FLUENCY IN QUESTIONING
Rate of meaningful questions put per unit time by the teacher is called fluency of questioning. Meaningful questions are those which are relevant to the concept being taught.
Components
structure
process
product
1) STRUCTURE OF QUESTION- A technique of formulation of questions the content and language used are important. Content means subject matter and language part refers to 5 aspects:
Grammatical correctness- use grammar correct, unambiguous and simple language.
Conciseness – refers to the minimal but essential length of question should be direct and straight forward.
Relevancy – question which are not related to content being taught is irrelevant, suit mental level of student.
Specificity – specific to content and should call for single answer.
Clarity- in terms of content and language. It increases fluency
2) PROCESS- process of formulating and asking question has more than one aspect-
Speed of asking questions – not ask at low speed, in pieces and hurriedly.
Voice of the teacher – should be audible and clear , in raised voice
Pause – defined as the time or the period of silence given by the teacher just after delivery of question
Style – properly modulated and pleasant tone and friendly manner
3) PRODUCT- students answer , depends on various factors –
Not intelligent to understand the question
Language may be difficult
Not taking interest
Inattentive in class
Lack of rapport
Lack previous knowledge
SKILL OF PROBING QUESTIONS/ RESPONSE MANAGEMENT
Probing refers to going deep in the matter in hand. When teacher asks questions there can be 5 possibilities:
No response, Wrong response, partially correct response, incomplete response and correct response
Probing questions is a skill of going deep into the pupils’ responses by asking series of questions which lead the pupils’ towards the correct response or higher level of understanding.
The skill of probing questions may be defined as the art of response management compromising a set of behaviours or techniques for going deep into pupils responses with a view to elicit the desired response. On account of its emphasis on the ways and means of response management, the skill of probing questioning has been named as the ‘skill of response management’.
COMPONENTS
PROMPTING-
means giving clues or hints to students.
Leading from incorrect or no response to correct response. It consists of series of questions which help to develop correct response.
Can help students for – self confidence, long retention, encouragement and clear understanding.
SEEKING FURTHER INFORMATION-
this is used when a partially correct or incomplete response is given to elicit more information.
This is to supply additional information to desired response
REFOCUSSING-
It is used in a correct response to strengthen the response.
Teacher compares one situation to other and for implication of response to more complex and novel situations.
REDIRECTION –
when teacher puts same question to several other students for desired response.
Used in case of no response , incorrect and incomplete response.
INCREASING CRITICAL AWARENESS
used in completely correct response for increasing critical awareness of pupils’.
The pupil justify his response rationally.
Reinforcing
Any stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the chance of occurrence of a response is called a reinforcer. The application or removal of stimulus to increase the strength of behaviour is called reinforcement.
Skinner identified two types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a stimulus which when added to the situation, increases the likelihood of the preceding response(behaviour). In positive reinforcement, a pleasant experience is given after the response occurs and this increases the probability that the response will occur again. e.g. food, drink, money etc., Praise, smile, reward, an affectionate pat at the back are positive reinforcers
Negative reinforcer is a stimulus which when removed from the situation, increases the likelihood of the desirable behaviour. In negative reinforcement, an unpleasant experience is withdrawn from the situation and this increases the probability of occurrence of the response. e.g. an electric shock, loud noise, etc., Whoever does the drill work properly would be exempted from homework
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
Negative reinforcement results from the elimination of an unpleasant stimulus. Punishment involves presentation of unpleasant stimulus. Negative reinforcement increases the behaviour. Punishment decreases the behaviour preceding it.
Negative reinforcement |
Punishment |
The stimulus is always removed from the situation |
The stimulus is either added or removed from the situation |
It increases the behaviour preceding it |
Decreases the behaviour preceding it |
Defined in terms of strengthening the response |
Defined in terms of weakening the response |
Averse stimulus precede the avoidance response |
Averse stimulus follows the undesirable response |
Negative reinforcement motivates behaviour |
Punishment decreases or suppress behaviour |
The after effects of negative reinforcement is always desirable |
The after effects of punishment need not be always desirable. |
Responses followed by negative reinforcement tend to become more likely. |
Responses followed by punishers tend not to be repeated. |
Negative reinforcement can be used to establish new desired behaviour |
Punishment cannot be used to establish new desired behaviour |
The organism subjected negative reinforcement is not found to try to escape from the source of the stimulus |
The organism who is punished tends to try to escape from the source of stimulus |
It will not bring out unwelcome social and emotional consequences |
Punishment may bring out unwelcome social and emotional consequences |
According to Skinner, “ if the occurrence of an operant (response) is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus , the strength is increased.” If response is not reinforced it will extinct.
The skill of reinforcement can be defined as the art of learning the judicious and effective use of reinforcers by a teacher for influencing the pupils’ behaviour in the desired direction directed towards pupils’ maximum participation for realising the better results in the teaching learning process.”
Components of Reinforcement skill
Positive verbal reinforcement
Negative verbal reinforcement
Positive nonverbal reinforcement
Negative nonverbal reinforcement
Extra verbal reinforcement
Positive verbal reinforcement
These are the positive comments given by the teacher on the correct response of the pupil. They are:
(i) Using words and phrases like, “good”, “very good” and “excellent”.
(ii) Repeating and rephrasing pupil’s response.
(iii)Using pupil’s idea in the development of the lesson.
(v) Using prompts like carry on think again, to help the pupil give correct response.
Positive Non -Verbal Reinforcement
The teacher gives comments to pupils on their correct response without using words. For example, this s/he does by nodding the head, smiling, patting, looking attentively at the responding pupil, and writing pupil’s answer on the black boards. The teacher encourages the pupils to participate maximally in the development of the lesson.
Negative Verbal Reinforcement
The teacher gives comments on the incorrect or partially incorrect response by telling that the pupil’s response is incorrect.
No, but thanks for trying.”
“Close, but not quite right.” “
I’m glad you made that mistake—it’s shows something that a lot of students misunderstand.”
Ask a follow-up question that leads the student to understand the error in the answer. “If that’s correct, then how do you explain this?”
Negative Non -Verbal Reinforcement
The teacher shows his disapproval without using words. This involves, frowning, staring, and looking angrily at the responding pupil, when he gives wrong response.
Extra Verbal Reinforcement
Teacher using extra-verbal cues, like “um”, “um”, “aha” to encourage pupils.
Illustrating
It involves describing an idea, concept, principle or generalizations by using various types of examples. The skill is defined as the art of judicious selection and proper presentation of the suitable examples in order to generalize a concept, idea or principle with a view of its understanding and proper application.
COMPONENTS
Formulating relevant examples
Relevant to topic
Irrelevant examples will create confusion
Formulating simple examples
Are those which are based on previous knowledge
Formulating interesting examples
Attracts attention and curiosity
According to age, maturity
Using appropriate media for examples
Non-verbal media of presentation- concrete materials, models, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams on blackboard, pictures
Verbal media of presentation- telling stories, anecdotes, analogies
Using examples of inductive – deductive approach
Inductive approach – examples to inferences
Deductive approach – concept, idea or principle to examples
Prepared by
Sabarish P
