Unit I - UNDERSTANDING DISCIPLINES AND SUBJECTS
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET
Assistant Professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.
School subjects and academic disciplines-Meaning, definitions and
differences
Ø School Subjects-Meaning
·
A school subject is an area of learning within
the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally defined field of
knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.
·
School subjects can be traditional academic
subjects, such as mathematics, history, geography, physics, chemistry and
economics.
·
Newly there are some unconventional school
subjects like tourism and hospitality.
·
Academic school subjects, such as mathematics,
chemistry, geography, history, and economics, are to be compulsorily taught to
the students.
·
The content of these academic subjects need to
be worked with and transformed by the teachers in such a way that it is
appropriate for classroom teaching.
·
Constructing a school subject involves the
selection and arrangement of content of knowledge, skills and the
transformation of that content for school and classroom use.
·
Constructing a school subject is in accordance
with respect to both the societal expectations and the activities of teaching.
·
Thus, a school subject is the result of
institutional selection, organization, and framing content for social,
economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic purposes.
·
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework
that gives meaning and shape to curriculum content, teaching, and learning
activities.
·
School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built
enterprises, constructed in response to different social, cultural, and
political demands and challenges, and towards educational aims.
·
Thus a school subject contains content, and
translating content for educational purposes.
Ø Academic disciplines-Meaning
·
The term ‘discipline’ originates from the Latin
words discipulus, which means pupil, and disciplina, which means teaching
(noun).
·
Academic discipline is a field or branch of
learning affiliated with an academic department of a university, formulated for
the advancement of research and scholarship.
·
Academic discipline is formulated for the
professional training of researchers, academics and specialists.
·
An academic
discipline or ‘field of study’ is a branch of knowledge that is
taught and researched as part of higher education.
·
Examples for Academic Disciplines are Anthropology,
Space Science, psychology, sociology, archeology, Education etc.
Ø School Subjects-Definition
·
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework
that gives meaning and shape to curriculum content, teaching, and learning
activities (Karmon, 2007)
·
School Subjects is defined as an “area of knowledge
that is studied in school”.-Britannica Encyclopaedia.
·
“A school subject is an area of learning within
the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally defined field of
knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.”- Deng, Z (2013)
·
School subjects are human constructions in response
to social, economic, cultural, political, and educational realities and needs.
They are “uniquely purpose built educational enterprises, designed with and
through educational imagination towards educative ends” (Deng & Luke,
2008, p. 83).
Ø
Academic
disciplines - Definition
·
“An academic discipline or field of study is a
branch of knowledge that is taught and researched as part of higher education”.
- Anthony Biglan
·
“Academic discipline is a field or branch of
learning affiliated with an academic department of a university, formulated for
the advancement of research and scholarship. It is formulated for the
professional training of researchers, academics and specialists.”- Deng,
Z (2013)
·
An academic discipline is a branch of learning or
scholarly investigation that provides a structure for the students’ (program of
study,) especially in the graduate and post-graduate levels.
·
A branch of knowledge or learning which is taught or
researched at the college or university level.-Glosbe
Ø School subjects and academic
disciplines – differences
·
School subjects can be traditional academic
subjects, such as mathematics, history, geography, chemistry and economics that
have direct relation with their parent academic disciplines.
·
Some unconventional school subjects like tourism
and hospitality have minimal connections with academic disciplines.
·
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework
that gives meaning and shape to curriculum content, teaching, and learning
activities.
·
School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built
enterprises, constructed in response to different social, cultural, and
political demands and challenges, and towards educational aims.
·
The formation of a school subject entails a
theory of content - a special way of selecting, framing, and translating
content for educational purposes.
·
Academic discipline is a field or branch of
learning affiliated with an academic department of a university, formulated for
the advancement of research and scholarship.
·
Academic discipline is formulated for the
professional training of researchers, academics and specialists.
·
A fundamental conceptual distinction between
school subjects and academic disciplines is crucial for a proper understanding
of curriculum development and pedagogical practice.
·
The distinction between school subjects and
academic disciplines has not received sufficient attention from policymakers,
researchers, and educators.
Ø
Aims
of Schooling: Competing Curricular Ideologies (Existing
Curricular ideas)
·
Over the last century schooling has been
asked to serve four different aims that are reflected in four curricular
ideologies
1)
Academic
rationalism: Primary function of schooling is intellectual development through
initiating students into specific bodies of knowledge, techniques, and ways of
knowing embedded in academic disciplines.
2)
Humanism: The central goal of schooling in terms of fostering
students’ potential, personal freedom, self-actualization, and all round development.
3)
Social
efficiency: The central purpose of schooling is to meet the current and
future manpower needs of a society by training youth to become contributing
members of society.
4)
Social
reconstructionism: Schooling is primarily an instrument for solving
social problems (inequalities, injustice, poverty, etc.) and cause social
reform and reconstruction.
Ø
Aims
of Schooling: Recent Discourses (New ideas/alternatives)
In the 21st century three curricular
discourses, autonomous learners, participatory
citizenship,
and globalization, have become rather
influential in the debates.
These discourses argue that contemporary
schooling should allow individual learners to construct their own knowledge
base and competences. It should prepare young people for their future role as
active, responsible, and productive citizens in a democratic society.
Furthermore, schools are expected to be instrumental in equipping individuals
for the challenges created by economic and cultural globalization. These ideas
have been employed by governments across the globe as the reasons for changing curriculum
content.
The above diverse aims and expectations of
schooling entail different implications for how school subjects should relate
to academic disciplines.
Ø Relationship between school
subjects and academic disciplines
(Three
Juxtapositions –continuous, discontinuous, and related.)
·
School subjects can have different and variable
relationships to academic disciplines, depending on their aims, contents, and
developmental phases.
·
There are three broad comparisons/contrasts
(associations) between school subjects and academic disciplines:
(1) School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.
(1) School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.
(2) School subjects and academic
disciplines are basically discontinuous.
(3) School subjects and academic
disciplines are different but related.
·
Each of the associations, ie Juxtapositions implies a particular
curricular position concerning how school subjects are constructed with respect
to academic disciplines.
(1) School
subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.
·
The continuous position shows the importance of
transmitting disciplinary knowledge for the development of the intellectual
capacity of students and for the maintenance or reproduction of academic
culture/knowledge.
·
This is called the doctrine of disciplinarity, according to which school subjects are
derived from and organised according to the structure of academic disciplines.
·
The central purpose of a school subject, like
that of a discipline, is to initiate the young into the academic community of
scholars.
·
School subjects, therefore, are supposed to derive
their life, from their related intellectual disciplines.
·
School subjects constitute a faithful and valid
introduction to the academic disciplines whose names they bear.
·
Students are dealing with relatively simple
ideas and methods, they study the same ideas and methods known by experts in
the academic disciplines.
·
In this Disciplinarity is alive.
·
The exclusive reliance of the curricular
position on academic disciplines in defining school subjects leaves out other
kinds of knowledge (e.g., practical knowledge, technical knowledge, local community
knowledge, etc.) that could be potential curriculum content.
·
Curriculum development framed by this curricular
position ignores the interests, attitudes, and feelings of learners.
Furthermore, this curricular position shows little concern about meeting social,
economic, and political needs, and is silent on issues about social reform and reconstruction.
·
The world of knowledge, the needs of learners,
and the needs and demands of society are three essential factors that determine
and shape curriculum content and set school subjects apart from academic
disciplines.
(2) School
subjects and academic disciplines are basically discontinuous.
·
In this curricular position school subjects and
academic disciplines are essentially discontinuous in purpose and substance. Hence,
school subjects are allowed for construction, which could get beyond the narrow
academic or disciplinary concern.
·
The discontinuous position finds support in
humanism, social efficiency, and social reconstructions.
·
Humanist educators argue that school subjects
are created to provide students with rewarding experiences that contribute to
personal growth and individual freedom. School subjects, therefore, need to be formulated
according to the interest, attitudes, and developmental stages of individual
students. They need to derive content from a wide range of sources – such as
personal experiences, human activities and community cultures and wisdoms. Disciplinary
knowledge may or may not be useful for the formation of school subjects.
·
From the perspective of social efficiency,
school subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining and
enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with
the requisite knowledge, skills, and capital.
·
The formation of school subjects, therefore, is
justified with close reference to the needs of occupation, profession, and
vocation.
·
Therefore, specialised and applied fields like
engineering, accounting, and marketing, among others, are the primary sources
from which the contents of school subjects are derived.
·
Academic disciplines are drawn upon only when
they demonstrate their efficacy in promoting those skills and knowledge
actually needed in occupations.
·
School subjects are created to provide students
with meaningful learning experiences that might lead to liberation and cause
social activity.
·
The formation of school subjects is based upon
an examination of social contexts, social issues, and futures, with the
intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own, standpoints, and
actions.
·
Like humanistic educators, social
reconstructionists believe that school subjects derive contents from a wide
range of sources. Contemporary curricular views like autonomous learners,
participatory citizenship and globalisation further set school subjects apart
from academic disciplines.
·
The curricular discourses call for a
learner-oriented approach to the construction of a school subject that allows
learners to construct their own knowledge according to their individual needs
and interests.
·
The curricular discourses require the school
subject to be formulated in ways that help students cultivate certain kinds of
sensitivity, disposition and awareness needed for responsible participation in
society.
·
The school subjects equip students with general skills
and lifelong learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation
and the knowledge-based economy.
(3) School
subjects and academic disciplines are different but related.
·
This third assumption demonstrates that the relationship
between school subjects and academic disciplines can exist in one of the three ways:
(a) that
academic disciplines precede school subjects,
(b) that
school subjects precede academic disciplines, or
(c) that the
relation between the subjects and disciplines is conflicting.
The first way holds that a
school subject results from the transformation of an academic discipline.
The second way reflects
that parallels exist between the stages in the development of disciplinary
knowledge and the stages through which the individual passes on the way to
maturity, and therefore, school subjects are formulated to reflect those parallels.
The third way can be
viewed as a combination of the first and the second ways, where an academic
discipline provides the endpoint for the formation of a school subject and the
school subject provides for getting to know the academic discipline.
Ø
Formation
of School subjects
The formation of a school subject, involves
three levels of curriculum making; the
societal, the programmatic, and the classroom.
The societal
curriculum, also called the ideal or
abstract curriculum, includes a conception of what schooling should be with
respect to the society and culture. Curriculum making at this level is
characterized by ideologies and discourses on curriculum policy according to
schooling, culture, and society.
The programmatic
curriculum, or the technical or
official curriculum, is contained in curriculum documents (e.g., syllabus)
and materials for use in schools and classrooms. Curriculum making at this
level translates the societal curriculum into school subjects, programs, or
courses of study provided to a school or system of schools. The process of
constructing a school subject or a course of study entails the selection and
arrangement of content (knowledge, skills, and dispositions) and the
transformation of that content for school and classroom use.
The classroom curriculum – i.e., the enacted curriculum – is
characterized by a cluster of events jointly developed by a teacher and a group
of students within a particular instructional context. Curriculum making at
this level involves transforming the programmatic curriculum embodied in
curriculum documents and materials into “educative” experiences for students.
The
societal and programmatic curricula together form the institutional curriculum.
Thus, a school subject is formed as the result
of institutional selection, organization, and framing content for social,
economic, cultural, curricular, and pedagogical purposes. Many important
decisions concerning content are therefore made prior to the actual
instructional activities and the content actually taught in the classroom, are
independent in many respects from classroom teachers.
Ø
Content
of school subjects.
·
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers
to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory of content’ – how
the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be transformed
so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
·
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area
from the school curriculum too has a social history.
Distinctive
school subjects are built for specific purposes and are constructed in
accordance with the prevailing social, cultural and political circumstances.
The content of academic subjects such as mathematics, chemistry, geography,
history, and economics are to be transformed by the teachers in way conducive
for classroom teaching.
The
contents of a school subject primarily comprise of the arrangement of age-appropriate
information in an orderly manner, so as to fulfill the educational needs of a
student. A school subject is constituted with a consideration of the societal
expectations and the teaching activities. A school subject is formed with a “theory
of content” aimed solely for educational purposes.
School
subjects are formed according to the needs of occupation, profession, and
vocation. Therefore, specialised and applied fields like engineering,
accounting, and marketing, among others, are the primary sources from which the
contents of school subjects are derived.
Many
important and independent decisions concerning the contents of school subjects
are made prior to the execution of instructional activities.
Teachers
and students play a vital role as they have the potential to improve the
contents of a subject by working in it for developing the instructional
background. The educative experiences of teachers and students contribute to a
large extent in transforming a school subject.
Thus
it can be established that institutional selection and organisational content
form the backdrop of a school subject and the contents are determined by the
social, economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic necessities.
Ø Why study school subjects ?
·
In many parts of the world traditional
school curriculum is being replaced by progressive types. By studying about
school subjects we can see that school subjects are essentially social and
political constructions.
·
School subjects have connection with social
structure; social relations and they have contributed in the process of
cultural transmission too. Now it is being recognized that school subjects are
important sources for studying about the society and problems in it.
·
Recent researches offers that national and
local proponents of subject change face a world culture of school subjects.
·
The national curriculum has reflected a new
movement to reconstitute the school subjects first launched in the world
movement of 1890 to 1910 periods.
·
Studying school subjects is necessary to
investigate the link between school subject knowledge and classroom pedagogy.
·
School subjects are now being considered as
cultural and historical phenomenon so it is necessary to study about them.
·
One of the
important reasons for studying school subjects is that they provide a clear
picture of school knowledge and practices.
·
Studying school
subjects thus entails an understanding of the “theory of content” that is
crucial for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.
·
School subjects
are aimed to maintain the academic culture and develop the intellectual
capacity of students. School subjects are constructed for the primary purpose
of maintaining and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping
future citizens with the requisite knowledge, skills, and capital.
·
School subjects
are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might
lead to liberation and cause social activity.
·
School subjects
are allowed for construction and further provide students with rewarding
experiences that contribute to their intellectual growth. The school curriculum
encourages a learner-oriented approach to construct a school subject that
allows students to learn according to their needs and interests in their chosen
fields of study. The school subjects equip the students with general skills and
learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and
the knowledge-based economy.
·
The school
subjects pave the way for students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their
social awareness, develop positive attitudes and values, and foster
problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Thus, studying school subjects
stands to offer a wide horizon for students to create and explore create new
corridors leading to enlightenment.
·
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers
to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory of content’ – how
the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be transformed
so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
·
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area
from the school curriculum too has a social history.
·
Studying school subjects helps us to
analyses how school subjects are influenced by the society, culture and values
of a nation.
To develop basic skills like reading ,writing and arithmetic
To enhance students’ understanding of their society, their nation, the human world and the physical environment..
To help students become independent thinkers so that they can construct knowledge appropriate to changing personal and social circumstances.
To develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication skills, and information technology skills.
To help students develop positive values and attitude towards life, so that they can become informed and responsible citizens of society, the country and the world.
To provide all round development of the child and to attain the objectives of Education.
Ø Why
studying school subjects?
School subjects are aimed to maintain the academic
culture and develop the intellectual capacity of students. School subjects are
constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining and enhancing economic and
social productivity by equipping future citizens with the requisite knowledge,
skills, and capital. School subjects are created to provide students with
meaningful learning experiences that might lead to liberation and cause social
activity.
School subjects are allowed for
construction and further provide students with rewarding experiences that
contribute to their intellectual growth.The school curriculum encourages a learner-oriented
approach to construct a school subject that allows students to learn according
to their needs and interests in their chosen fields of study.The school
subjects equip the students with general skills and learning abilities,
essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based
economy.
The school subjects pave the way for
students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their social awareness, develop
positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking
skills.Thus, studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for
students to create and explore create new corridors leading to enlightenment.
Ø
“Content”
of school subjects- Why study school subjects ? (for student teachers)
(Note: For deep level of Understanding Only.
B.Ed. syllabus does not have scope for the matter discussing given below. However the students can go through it to understand the essence of the area )
·
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers
to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory of content’ – how
the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be transformed
so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
·
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area
from the school curriculum too has a social history.
·
Teachers need to have three kinds of subject
matter knowledge: content knowledge,
pedagogical content knowledge and
curricular knowledge.
·
Content
knowledge includes knowledge of the substance and structure of the academic
discipline.
·
Pedagogical
content knowledge involves an understanding of pedagogical representations
and instructional strategies, and of students’ pre-conceptions with respect to
particular curriculum topics at particular grade levels. By pedagogical content
knowledge, the teacher transforms his or her disciplinary content into forms
that are powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background
presented by students.
·
Curricular
knowledge involves an understanding of the curriculum and the instructional
materials available for teaching a subject at various grade levels, which can
be an aid to the transformation process. Two assumptions underly the framework
of curricular knowledge: (1) that school subjects and academic disciplines are
essentially continuous in substance and practice; and (2) that classroom
teachers necessarily work with and transform the content of an academic
discipline into the content of a school subject.
·
Reliance on the academic discipline as an
essential frame of reference for defining teachers’ specialised understanding
of content tends to overlook what is involved in knowing the content of a
school subject for teaching.
·
Teachers do need basic knowledge of related academic
disciplines, but knowing the content of a school subject lies at the heart of their
professional understanding.
·
School subjects, constitute the locus of
classroom teaching; they frame classroom teachers’ practice and perspectives on
curriculum and instruction.
·
Knowing the content of a school subject involves
knowing how the content is selected, formulated, framed, and transformed in
ways that render meaningful and educative experiences for students.
·
The knowledge of the content of a school subject
is crucial for disclosing the educational potential inherent in the content.
·
As example, it is possible to look at knowing
the content of a secondary school science subjects like physics, chemistry and
biology and knowing the content of liberal studies (an additional course in
arts subjects taken by students studying for a qualification in science,
technology, or the humanities.). Knowing
the content of a secondary school science subject involves knowing five
intersecting aspects;
1) logical (body of concepts and
principles in the school curriculum),
2) epistemological (concerning how we know
these concepts and principles and how they come to reach their present refined
form),
3) psychological (concerning how the
concepts and principles to be taught can be developed out of the interest,
experience, and prior knowledge of students),
4) pedagogical (concerning the effective
ways of representing and reformulating the concepts and principles)
5) socio-cultural (concerning how
knowledge relates to and interacts with society, technology, and culture).
·
The teacher needs to know how the logical can be
formulated and transformed on the epistemological, psychological, pedagogical, and
socio-cultural planes, to render meaningful and educative experiences to
students. Teacher’s knowledge on the content of liberal studies entails knowing
how content can be organised, framed, and transformed into learning experiences
to broaden students’ perspectives, enhance their social awareness, develop
positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking
skills.
·
With respect to liberal studies, four aspects
are essential for knowing the content: namely inquiry framing, socio-cultural
framing, psycho-epistemological framing and pedagogic translation.
·
Inquiry
framing is the content made for cross-curricular and issue-based inquiry.
·
Socio-cultural
framing is the content prepared with reference to socio-cultural contexts.
·
Psycho-epistemological
framing is defining the content with reference to the curricular or
knowledge context of students.
·
Pedagogic
translation is translating the content into teaching and learning
activities and selecting instructional resources.
Each of these aspects can be characterised by a set
of probing questions.
Inquiry
Framing - What are the themes and key issues pertaining to the module? What
are the key concepts that underlie each of the themes? How are these concepts
related to the concepts in other modules? What are the related issues for
exploration?
Socio-cultural
Framing - What significance do the key issues and related issues have for
students, the society and the world? How might these issues arise from various
socio-cultural contexts? What different perspectives can be brought to bear on
addressing these issues? What kinds of critical thinking can be encouraged?
What attitudes and values are worthy of cultivation?
Psycho-epistemological
Framing - What prerequisite knowledge and skills are needed for learning the issues and concepts? How might the key issues and
concepts connect with what students learn in other school subjects or from
other learning experiences in the curriculum? What have students already known
and experienced in relation to these issues and concepts? How might their
existing knowledge and experience be drawn upon for learning the issues and
concepts?
Pedagogic
Translation - On the basis of the above considerations, what could be
teaching and learning activities like group discussion, debate, role-play,
project work, and independent inquiry, that could broaden students’
perspectives and provide them with opportunities for problem-solving,
independent learning, and cross-curricular and critical thinking? What
resources could be employed for achieving the instructional purposes? What
tools are most useful for assessing student learning? How could the results of
assessment be used to inform instruction?
·
Asking these questions allows teachers to
interpret and reinvent the meanings of the content of a particular module in
specific instructional contexts.
·
Teachers
assume the role of curriculum developer at the school or classroom level.
·
Knowing the content and studying school subjects
thus entails an understanding of the theory of content that is crucial for
disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.
References
1) Deng,
Z (2013), School subjects and academic disciplines. In A Luke, A woods & K
weir (Eds.), Curriculum, Syllabus design and equity: A primer and model.
Routledge
2) Ivor
F. Goodson and Colin J. Marsh, Studying school subjects, A guide (1996), Routledge
Expected questions
1)
Define academic disciplines/school subjects.
2)
What do you meant by academic
disciplines/school subject?
3)
What is the difference between academic
discipline and school subject?
4)
Explain the relationship between school
subjects and academic disciplines.
5)
What do you meant by ‘theory of
content’ ?
6)
Explain the concept of Content of school subjects.?
7)
How can a teacher know the content of school subjects?
8)
Show the importance of studying school subjects.?
9)
Why studying school subjects?
10) What
is the importance of teacher for studying about school subjects?
11) What
are the different types of knowledge required by a teacher to know a school subject?
12) What
are the requirements for knowing the content of a school subject?
13) Describe
briefly the aspects that are essential for a teacher to know the content of
school subjects?
