LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM-BEd Notes
Unit 1 – Knowing language across the curriculum
Prepared by
Sabarish P
Contents
Language as tool for communication in variety contexts across different disciplines.
Define of language and communication.
Nature and characteristics of language.
Importance of language.
Types of communication.
Role of language in human communication and classroom communication.
Barriers in classroom communication.
Nature of discipline and language expressions for teachers and learners in classroom context.
Examples for linguistic variety with respect to specific school subjects.
Language as tool for communication in variety contexts across different disciplines.
Definition of language and communication
Language -Definition
Language is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice, sounds, gestures or written symbols.
Language is a system of conventional spoken, manual or written symbols by means of which human beings as members of social group and participants in its culture express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression and emotional release.
Communication-Definition
Communication is derived from Latin word ‘communis’ meaning common. Communication is the process of commonness of thought between a sender and a receiver.
Communication is the exchange, imparting or transmission of ideas, information, opinions or thoughts transmitted electronically or by gestures, speech or writing.
Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver – G.G.Brown.
Communication is intercourse by words, letters or messages - Fred G. Meyer.
Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas information, signals or messages through appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions. This broad definition includes body language, skills of speaking and writing.
Nature and characteristics of language
Language is human
Language is primarily speech which is uniquely human
Language is symbolic
Language is arbitrary (no mutual connection between letter and reality)
Language is systematic
Language is dynamic
Language is complete (we can communicate all our ideas)
Language is a cultural phenomenon
Language is a social activity
Language is conventional (practice in particular society)
Language is a purposeful activity
Language is learned behaviour
Importance of language
Language can be regarded as:
Vehicle of thought
Medium of expression
Medium of communication
Communication with other countries
Mental development
Basis of education
Medium of literature
Growth and civilization
Development of peace
Types of communication
Verbal or non verbal
Intra personal or interpersonal
Group dynamics
Organisational communication
Cross cultural communication
Language and communication
Language is characterized as a tool for communication. We use language to Exchange ideas, ask question, make request, express emotions, indicate doubt etc. Language is primary vehicle of communication. Language is the vehicle we use in presenting our ideas, thoughts, feelings and opinions. Language reflects both the personality of the individual and the culture of his history. In turn it shapes the personality and culture. Language makes possible the growth and transmission of culture, the continuity of societies and the effective functioning of social group. That is why whenever a country, people or race conquers; the first thing that will be affected will be conquered language
Role of language in human communication
Language is central to leaning for every individual. Language enables individuals to give expressions to their feelings, ideas and concerns. As they mature it is through language that they will communicate their personal needs and claim their rightful place in society.
Role of language in classroom communication
Language is the primary tool through which teachers mediate and through which the students access the whole curriculum. Language helps teachers to deal with challenges in a classroom in a positive way. Language helps in structuring the classroom environment. Language helps to form rules of interaction need to be explored and taught in a variety of contexts. Language helps teacher to facilitate learning through questioning, prompting, guidance and discussion, developing self confidence and self esteem. It also helps teacher for creating a communicative environment for oral language development and literacy development.
Tips for effective classroom communication
We communicate through
Verbal – What we say – 7% (Words)
Vocal –How we say – 38% (Message & voice)
Visual – What our body says -55% (Non verbal)
Verbal component
Know your audience
Use words that are familiar & easy to use.
Vocal component (Voice quality, vocal variety)
Use pitch & inflection to convey emotion
(for e.g. high pitch for excitement & low pitch for sombre moments)
Articulation – the ability to say words correctly (Practise tongue twisters)
Use resonance for quality (relax your throat)
Open your mouth and allow the sounds to flow.
Vary your rate of speech.
Visual component (body language)
Stance & posture (exhibits confidence & knowledge)
Stand erect & keep your foot appropriately
Try to relax
Establish eye contact
Talk to them not to floor or ceiling
Settle eye contact on one person for about 4-5 seconds then move to another person for the same length of time.
Enhance presentation with appropriate hand gestures
Show expression in face (joy, sadness, excitement or confusion etc.,)
Be sincere
Barriers to effective classroom communication
Environmental factors
Distance between sender and receiver
Noise
Gloomy atmosphere
Psychological factors
Anger, Tension, Fear, Fatigue
Linguistic factors
Strange pronunciation
Wrong word order
Improper words
Poor organisation
Instrumental factors
Trouble in instruments (computer, telephone etc.,)
Connectivity (internet)
Presentation factors
Inaudibility
Over speed
Overcrowding of information
Lack of harmony between verbal and non verbal aspects of communication
Language as a subject and language in other subjects
Language as a subject is responsible for language education i.e., development of language competencies such as listening, reading, interacting, speaking and writing. Every learner has the right to be equipped with these fundamental language competencies for their future learning, for developing their identity, for finding their place in job market and for participating in society as social agent and democratic citizen. Education in language(s) of schooling is equally necessary in other non-linguistic subjects.
There are many communication requirements in all other subjects such as biology, history, mathematics etc., they include:
Reading and understanding expository texts, which are often different in structure on the disciplinary content.
Listening to explanation of complex issues by the teacher
Answering questions orally and in written mode
Presenting results of investigation and study
Participating in task oriented discussions
Language learning is always subject learning at the same time. Language competence therefore is an integral part of subject competence. Without adequate language competencies a learner can neither properly follow the content that is being taught, nor communicate with others.
Language in other subject contexts is not limited to learning new concept through new system of terminology which reflects the knowledge structures of a particular subject. It requires new ways of thinking within the framework of one particular subject or of group of subjects (e.g. natural science or social science) and their specific approaches for reality and viewing the world. It requires new ways of communicating of understanding and producing a variety of text types or genres of engaging with specialised forms of discourse which follows certain traditions conventions & expectations
The term text type relates to the possibilities of classifying texts according to general or universal criteria (e.g. narration, description/exposition, argumentation, instruction, etc.,). It cannot be restricted to texts, but includes all types of oral and written communication in subject- specific texts (e.g. summary of observation/report on the result of a search on internet). The term genre, on the other hand relates more or less conventionalised form of presenting meaning shared by a specific community and realised in form of discourse in specific setting (e.g. scientific articles, research texts, manuals, text book, lectures, encyclopaedias etc.,)
The difference between language as a subject & language in other subjects is reduced sometimes to matter of simply learning new words & terminologies in dealing with other subjects and their content. This is too narrow view. There is indeed need to establish a shared terminology. Subject learning is to adopt the ways of thinking of a new subject to understand major issues, the settled & unsettled questions to comprehend and participate in the ways of discovery, of categorising, of modelling& of reasoning to develop efficient communication strategies for oral & written exchanges in a cohesive and coherent manner.
Nature of discipline and language expressions for teachers and learners in classroom context.
Learning in any subject area requires the use of language; therefore, listening, speaking, reading and writing are used as tools for learning that subject area. The more fluent students become as readers, writers, speakers, and listeners, the clearer, more coherent, and more flexible their thinking will become.
Basic English language
Basic English is a system consisting of 850 carefully selected words. It has the coverage of nearly 25,000 words of normal English that are commonly used. Of all the words in the dictionary, only 25,000 are actively used and roughly not more than 8500 are used by those who speak English. Analysis and close study of meaning of words have revealed that in English, for every word denoting a basic concept or idea there are about 10 synonymns. Of 850 words, 600 are nouns, 150 are adjectives, 18 are verbs, 20 prepositions, 62 include pronouns, conjugations, question words etc. Later 250 idioms, 100 scientific terms and special technical terms were added.
The learning outcomes that teacher use to explicitly teach language in every subject may include the following:
• Subject-specific vocabulary, e.g. balance sheet, reagent bottles, legato, etc.
• Familiarity with subject specific word formation, i.e. prefixes, suffixes, word roots, etc,
e.g. in Science the suffix ‘…ology’
• Forms of expression, e.g. “The sum of 100 and X is less than half of X, what is the value of X?”; or, “Do you agree with the viewpoint portrayed in the cartoon?” Justify your argument. etc.
• Competency and skills required for comprehending, identifying, selecting and integrating information in connection with specific text types, tasks and materials, e.g. “Extrapolate from the graph”, “Write a hypothesis relevant to the experiment”, “Compare Source A and Source B”, etc.
Nature of Subject & specific classroom expressions
History
History is a language rich subject. Language (and reason) plays a significant role in learning and making history. We generally learn history by reading books, watching documentaries and media, and of course, listening to teachers. Historical records are based in language and so to is understanding the feelings and reasons for why things happened in the past. Because language changes, there may also be a need for some vocabulary that captures the past meaning of words and expressions that are not in current use by students today.
Language in History typically deals with recounts, accounts, explanations, exposition, rebuttal challenges, and discussion. They may, for example, need to recount historical figures, report on causal relationships, explain consequences, justify positions with evidence, challenge other interpretations, or compare and contrast multiple interpretations of historical events. Common grammatical structures include passive voice and conversions of verbs into nouns (resist into resistance).
COMMON VOCABULARY IN HISTORY
Vocabulary in History most commonly refers to concepts, titles, historical movements, and event-specific language and terminology.
The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the History classroom.
Alliance, anarchy, authority, characteristic, civilization, communism, democracy, development, dictate, dynasty, economy, historian, impact, industry, influence, migration, monarch, obstacle, peasant, philosophy, propaganda, resistance, socialism, struggle, tension, conflict, reason.
WORD FORMATION
Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary.
The following five prefixes are examples of what may be found in the History classroom.
Prefixes Meaning Key Word
de- opposite devolve
fore- before foresee
mis- wrongly misrepresent
sub- under sub-current
un- not unrealistic
The following five suffixes are examples of what may be found in the History classroom.
Suffixes Meaning Key Word
-able, -ible can be done changeable
-ic having characteristics of democratic
-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition act, process demonstration
-ment action or process movement
-s, -es more than one soldiers
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY CLASSROOM
Comparing and contrasting:
Sample Question:
Compare the policies of Mussolini with those of Hitler.
Discuss the impacts of an event on society:
Sample Question:
“Discuss the impacts of the “Reform movements on Kerala society.”
Apply chronology:
Which of these lists shows the correct order/sequence?
Which event best completes the timeline?
Geography
Geography like all the humanities is also a language rich subject. There is even a Language Geography (study of the geographical distribution of languages). Geography is also a science and as such it contains many scientific terms and descriptive concepts that need to be included in students’ vocabulary lists. Language Outcomes in Geography should include the explicit teaching of writing argumentative essays that draw upon data from sources (including maps and diagrams) to concisely express logical conclusions.
Language in Geography typically deals with analysis, explanations, exposition, interpretation, and discussion. As such, students may reflect on issues of physical, human and environmental geography. They may, for example, need to report on other people and places; how they interrelate; the significance of location; human and physical environments; causes and consequences of change; geographical patterns and processes, etc. Linguistically, students should be able to decode concepts and vocabulary by using their understanding of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and nomenclature and common expressions., Student need to read texts and interpret graphs and diagrams (including maps) for context clues. Common grammatical structures examine cause and effect, and include passive voice and conversions of verbs into nouns (originate into origin).
COMMON VOCABULARY IN GEOGRAPHY
Vocabulary in Geography most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology. 'Key words’ are an essential part of trying to understand and then explain how patterns and processes work in Geography.
The following key words are a small sample frequently used in the Geography classroom in just one topic, “Drought”:
Physical Key Words Human Key Words
Drought Reservoir
Precipitation Environmental
Ground water Water shortage
Water table Economic
Aquifer Demand
Evaporation Social
Infiltration Supply
Runoff Sustainable
Watercycle Impact
Climate Strategy
Rainfall Dam
Permeable / impermeable Water usage
Porous Consumption
Weather Viewpoint
Drainage basin Cause
Percolation Climate change
Average rainfall / temperature Management
Recharge Stress
WORD FORMATION
The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Geography classroom.
Prefixes Meaning Key Word
en-, em- cause to emigrate
over- over overgrazed
pre- before precipitation
semi- half semi-urban
sub- under suburb
Suffixes Meaning Key Word
-able, -ible can be done arable
-al, -ial having characteristics of continental
-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition act, process erosion
-ic having characteristics of tectonic
-ing* present participle verb form weathering
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE GEOGRAPHY CLASSROOM
Interpret geographic patterns:
Sample Question:
Based on the map provided, describe the location of tropical rainforests.
Sample Answer:
The map suggests that tropical rainforests usually occur in areas of high temperature and low areas around rivers.
Compare and contrast:
Sample Question:
Compare and contrast the farming systems of irrigation farming in Southern California with nomadic herding in the Sahel.
Sample Answer:
A key difference between the two farming systems lies in the input of capital and technology.
Explain causal relationships:
Sample Question:
Explain the formation of an oceanic trench in the Pacific Ocean.
Sample Question:
Oceanic trenches in the Pacific Ocean were caused by shifts in tectonic plates.
Explanation and Assessment
Sample Question:
To what extent are the government’s actions a major reason for the industrial relocation of iron and steel plants in China?
Sample Answer:
On the one hand, the governmental policies affect location. On the other hand, factors such as raw material and power resources are just as important.
Illustrate with examples:
Sample Question:
Explain how sustainability can be applied to urban planning.
Sample Answer:
Sustainable urban planning should involve economic, social and environmental aspects.
Mathematics
There is no doubt that mathematics is itself a language. Teaching and learning of this subject requires a sound grasp of the unique nomenclature of the English of mathematics. This is not just about a specific vocabulary, but also a way of framing sentences and statements to have contextual meaning.
e.g. “The sum of the two integers is 10”
Language skills in mathematics include the ability
to perform basic computations,
to use basic mathematical concepts in practical situations,
to make reasonable estimates,
to understand graphs, charts, and numerical concepts in language,
to manage data,
to handle money and do stock inventories.
They may, in addition, need to represent word problems mathematically,
explain or justify mathematical reasoning,
describe procedures,
recount how a problem was solved,
define and relate mathematical concepts,
evaluate or construct mathematical arguments and
interpret and explain proofs.
COMMON VOCABULARY IN MATHEMATICS
Vocabulary in Mathematics most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology.
The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Math classroom.
Addition, calculate, circle, complete, cube, division, divisor, estimate, least, mass, multiply, numerator, pattern, position, prime numbers, product, prove, rectangle, relationship, scale, shape.
WORD FORMATION
Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary.
The following five prefixes are examples of what may be found in the Maths classroom.
Prefixes Meaning Key Word
dis- not, opposite of disperse
in-, im- in impossible
over- over overall
sub- under subdivision
un- not unravel
The following five suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Maths classroom.
Suffixes Meaning Key Word
-est comparative biggest
-al, -ial having characteristics of binomial
-ed* past-tense verbs squared
-ive, -ative, -itive adjective form of a noun derivative
-s, -es more than one vertexes
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE MATHS CLASSROOM
Concept Clarification:
Sample Question:
Which of the following is NOT a function? Why?
(a) y = x2 (b) x = y2 (c) y = sin x
Typical Answer:
x = y2 is NOT an function because when x = 1 , y can takes 2 different values 1
and −1 .
Proofs:
Sample Question:
Prove that ΔABC is a right angled triangle.
Sample Answer:
Q c2 = a2 + b2
Hence ΔABC is a right angled triangle. (Pythagoras’ Theorem)
Setting Up and Solving Equations:
A father is 3 times as old as his son. In 20 years’ time, the father’s age will be double that of the son. Find the son’s age.
Sample Question: Solve 3x + 20 = 2(x + 20)
Answer: 3 +20 =2 (x+20)
3x + 20 = 2x + 40
X= 20
Science
The language of science is a combination of the specialist terms needed to access the subjects of Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Students in these subjects will need to learn the vocabulary of these sciences, from the scientific names of plants, to the names of the elements of the periodic table. Science is also the language of inquiry; it is about investigation, hypothesizing, and using evidence. Science is considered by many to be a language of itself, without the logical rational thinking processes of science (and the language needed to create it) knowledge wouldn’t be created.
COMMON VOCABULARY IN SCIENCE
Vocabulary in Science most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology.
The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Science classroom.
accuracy, atom, compound, dissolve, evaporation, fission, force, fusion, galaxy, gravity, hypothesis, investigation, kinetic, liquid, mass, , matter, motion, movement, notation, observation, precision, theory, variable, velocity, volume.
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY CLASSROOM
Compare and Contrast
Sample Question:
Compare and contrast the mitosis and meiosis.
Sample Answer:
The similarities between the processes of mitosis and meiosis are that both involve nuclear division, duplication and replication of DNA/ chromosomes, and the movement of chromosomes along the spindle fibers. Both also involve spindle formation.
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE PHYSICS CLASSROOM
Description
Sample Question:
Describe and explain the effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis.
Sample Answer:
At low light intensity, rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to light intensity, since light provide energy for photosynthesis to take place. At high light intensity, increase in light intensity has no effect on rate of photosynthesis because other factors become limiting.
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN SCIENCE CLASSROOM
Sequence:
Sample Question:
Explain the production process for chocolate.
Sample Answer:
To produce chocolate, coca first needs to be harvested, then refined to cocoa beans, and finally shipped to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, coaching and grinding.
Some interesting parts of science words
Word Meaning
hemo blood
hyper above
hypo below
intra within, inside
itis disease, inflammation
lateral side
logy study of
lys break down
meter measurement
mono one, single
Morph form
micro small
macro large
Multi many
Pod foot
Music
Language is essential in music, but should not be mixed up with ‘musical language’. The best known and probably most widely acknowledged specialized music language is Western music (five-line staff) notation.
Language Outcomes in Music should include the explicit teaching of musical vocabulary. Outcomes should also ensure the development of language skill in expressing ‘feelings’ and emotions in music appreciation as well as arguments in music critique.
Language in Music typically deals with representing musical elements symbolically, justifying musical techniques, describing and interpreting performances, recounting history of musical forms, defining, relating or contrasting music concepts, and nomenclature and common expressions. As such, students should be able to evaluate musician communities and genres as well as participate in classroom discussions, evaluate music, and critique recent performances, concert reviews, etc. Music also includes non-linguistic language such as the nonverbal signals used in conducting and in musical notation. Linguistically, students should be able to relate vocabulary to content such as tempo, andante and allegro or blend, chord, note, etc. They should also be able to interpret musical score syntax organizing text with two staves, clef, time signature, tempo indicated in a specific place, sharps and flats appearing in designated places, etc.
COMMON VOCABULARY IN MUSIC
Vocabulary in Music most commonly deals with concepts, musical syntax, song organization, and subject-specific terminology.
The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Music classroom.
Cappella, beat, chord, composer, contour, duration, dynamics, elements, form, forte, harmony, measure, melody, meter, mezzo, notation, piano, pitch, rhythm, rote, signature, style, tempo, timber, unison.
WORD FORMATION
Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary. The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Music classroom.
Prefixes Meaning Key Word
en-, em- cause to ensemble
inter- between intermission
mis- wrongly miscount
re- again return
trans- across transpose
Suffixes Meaning Key Word
-er comparative higher
-ment action or process enjoyment
-ous, -eous, -ious possessing the qualities of joyous
-s, -es more than one sheets
-y characterized by harmony
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE MUSIC CLASSROOM
Classroom language used in music mainly involves listening and singing songs, and then discussing rhythm, melody, pattern etc.
Compare and contrast:
Compare the melody of ‘Today’ and ‘Do you hear the people sing?’ regarding the following two aspects: (i). Rhythm and (ii). Pitch
Sample Answer:
The difference between the two songs is that “Do you hear the people sing” is in triplets and a higher pitch than “Today”.
Describing music:
Sample Question:
Discuss the music in the song “We Will Rock You”.
Sample Answer:
The song “We Will Rock You” is representative of rock and roll opera because of its strong rhythm that inspires the listener to stand up, clap and get energetic.
Describing voices:
In the song “My Heart Will Go On”, describe the voice of the singer.
Sample Answer:
“My Heart Will Go On” is sung by a soprano who annunciates the words clearly and sustains good pitch for a long time. She clearly has good breathing and is singing from her stomach.
Physical Education
Teaching and learning in Physical Education (PE) is a rich combination of the language of science, health and the language of sport. It combines terms taken from biology and physics as well as terms from psychology and health. Intermingled are terms from sports such as coaching, refereeing and even the unique language of sport’s media.
Language Outcomes in Physical Education should include explicit teaching of sports language, coaching language and related science terminology (e.g. physiological and biological terms). PE should outcomes should also include a focus on the language skills needed to write concise, ‘reports’ style statements pertaining to the analysis of data and graphs.
Language in Physical Education typically deals with descriptions, procedures, explanations, regulations, rules and analysis. As such, students may need to give a description of a muscle response naming body parts; an account of a student’s physical actions; the results of sporting action (e.g. baseball: “That pitch went wild”); discuss rules for a new game; explain why it is important to be physically active (such as stretching in warming up exercises); and analyze evidence (e.g. body fat index analysis). Linguistically, students should be able to decode concepts and vocabulary by using their understanding of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and more, as well as read within related clusters of vocabulary for context clues. Common grammatical structures include cause-effect relations and passive voice.
COMMON VOCABULARY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Vocabulary in Physical Education most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology. The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in PE.
Athlete, basket, bat, beat, catch, circuit, court, draw, goal, kick, match, medal, miss, net, pitch, record, referee, save, score, shoot, spectators, stadium, tackle, whistle.
WORD FORMATION
Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary. The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Physical Education classroom
Prefixes Meaning Key Word
de- opposite deflect
super- above superstar
over- over overtones
mid- middle midway
in-, im- in infield
Suffixes Meaning Key Word
-able, -ible can be done comfortable
-ed past-tense verbs hopped
-ful full of careful
-ing present participle verb form running
-less without fearless
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Benefits and advantages:
Sample Question:
Discuss the impact of introducing gambling into sport.
Sample Answer:
Firstly, introducing gambling may be beneficial because there will be more income for the sports industry and the government. In addition, spectator attendance will increase because of a desire to win money. On the other hand, gambling will have a negative impact on young people who will focus more on results rather than process.
Cause and Effect:
Sample Question:
Which kind of sports would increase the chance of head injury?
Sample Answer:
All contact sports such as rugby, basketball, boxing, have the potential to increase the chance of head injury.
Compare and contrast:
Sample Question:
Compare the energy source of aerobic system with those of anaerobic system.
Sample Answer:
In general, the main source of energy for the aerobic system is fat and glycogen (lower exercise intensity is aerobic). In comparison, the main source for the anaerobic is phosphocreatine and glycogen (the higher intensity).
Identification:
Sample Question:
Identify three functions of the skeletal system.
Sample Answer:
The three functions include movement, support, and protecting the internal organs.
Process:
Sample Question:
What immediate care should be taken if a volleyball player sprains his ankle?
Sample Answer:
To
care for a sprained ankle you should first rest the leg, then ice it
and apply compression. Finally, you should elevate the leg.
