CASE STUDY RESEARCH
METHOD
(Exclusively For M.Ed Students)
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed.,NET
Lecturer in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.
Introduction
The case
study is undertaken to examine a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a social group, a
family, a social institution, or a community. The basic question in a case
study is: “what are the characteristics of this single case or of these
comparison cases?” Since the roots of
case study are interdisciplinary, many different concepts and theories are used
to describe and explain the case. Case study methods are used in the fields of
social sciences, law, education, psychology and medicine because of
multidisciplinary roots. Sigmund Freud
was a pioneer in using case study methods in the field of psychiatry to treat
his psychoneurotic patients. In the
educational contexts, case studies may be used to study typical individuals
(like drug addicts, juvenile delinquents, school dropouts, slow learners,
gifted children, etc.) and communities
(a tribe showing high literary percentage among girls, characteristics of a
migratory labor group forcing their
children to drop out from the schools, etc.).
Definition of case study
“A case
study is a method for learning about a complex instance, based on a
comprehensive understanding of that instance obtained by extensive description
and analysis of that instance taken as a whole and in its context.”
When
to Use a Case Study Approach
According to Yin (2003) a case study design should be
considered when:
(a) The focus of the study is to answer “how” and “why”
questions;
(b) You cannot manipulate the behavior of those involved in
the study;
(c) You want to cover contextual conditions because you
believe they are relevant to the phenomenon under study; or
(d) The boundaries are not clear between the phenomenon and
context.
For instance, a study of the decision making of nursing
students conducted by Baxter (2006) sought to determine the types of decisions
made by nursing students and the factors that influenced the decision making. A
case study was chosen because the case was the decision making of nursing
students, but the case could not be considered without the context, the School
of Nursing, and more specifically the clinical and classroom settings. It was
in these settings that the decision making skills were developed and utilized.
It would have been impossible for this author to have a true picture of nursing
student decision making without considering the context within which it
occurred.
Determining
the Case/Unit of Analysis
The element of typicalness rather than uniqueness is the
focus of attention, for an emphasis on uniqueness would preclude scientific
abstraction. Bromley (1986) notes “A
‘case’ is not only about a ‘person’ but also about that ‘kind of person’”.
The selection of the subject of the case study needs to be done carefully to
assure that he or she is typical of those to whom we wish to generalize. While
considering what your research question will be, we must also consider what the
case is. The case is defined by Miles and Huberman (1994) as, “a phenomenon of
some sort occurring in a bounded context. The case is, “in effect, your unit of
analysis” (p. 25). Asking yourself the following questions can help to
determine what your case is; do I want to “analyze” the individual? Do I want
to “analyze” a program? Do I want to “analyze” the process? Do I want to
“analyze” the difference between organizations? Answering these questions along
with talking with a colleague can be effective strategies to further delineate
your case.
Types of case study
Generally
Case study research is classified into three types based on the objectives
1.
Intrinsic case study:
The objective is to understand the particulars of the case.
2.
Instrumental case study:
The objective is to understand something more general than the case.
3.
Collective case study:
The objective is to study and compare multiple
cases in a single research study.
The selection of a specific type of case study design will be
guided by the overall study purpose. Are you looking to describe a case,
explore a case, or compare between cases?
Yin (2003) and Stake (1995) use different terms to describe a
variety of case studies. Yin categorizes case studies as explanatory,
exploratory, or descriptive. He also differentiates between single, holistic
case studies and multiple-case studies. Stake identifies case studies as
intrinsic, instrumental, or collective.
1) Explanatory: This type of case study would be
used if you were seeking to answer a question that sought to explain the
presumed causal links in real-life interventions that are too complex for the
survey or experimental strategies. In evaluation language, the explanations
would link program implementation with program effects (Yin, 2003).
2) Exploratory: This type of case study is used to
explore those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no
clear, single set of outcomes (Yin, 2003).
3) Descriptive: This type of case study is used to
describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it
occurred (Yin, 2003).
4) Multiple-case
studies: A multiple
case study enables the researcher to explore differences within and between
cases. The goal is to replicate findings across cases. Because comparisons
will be drawn, it is imperative that the cases are chosen
carefully so that the researcher can predict similar results across cases, or
predict contrasting results based on a theory (Yin,2003)
5) Intrinsic: Stake (1995) uses the term intrinsic
and suggests that researchers who have a genuine interest in the case should
use this approach when the intent is to better understand the case. It is not
undertaken primarily because the case represents other cases or because it
illustrates a particular trait or problem, but because in all its particularity
and ordinariness, the case itself is of interest. The purpose is NOT to come to
understand some abstract construct or generic phenomenon. The purpose is NOT to
build theory (although that is an option; Stake, 1995).
6) Instrumental: Is used to accomplish something
other than understanding a particular situation. It provides insight into an
issue or helps to refine a theory. The case is of secondary interest; it plays
a supportive role, facilitating our understanding of something else. The case
is often looked at in depth, its contexts scrutinized, its ordinary activities
detailed, and because it helps the researcher pursue the external interest. The
case may or may not be seen as typical of other cases (Stake, 1995)
7) Collective: Collective case studies are similar
in nature and description to multiple case studies (Yin, 2003)
Data
Sources
A hallmark of case study research is the use of multiple data
sources, a strategy which also enhances data credibility (Patton, 1990; Yin,
2003). Unique in comparison to other qualitative approaches, within case study
research, investigators can collect and integrate quantitative survey data,
which facilitates reaching a holistic understanding of the phenomenon being
studied. In case study, data from these multiple sources are then converged in
the analysis process rather than handled individually. Each data source is one
piece of the “puzzle,” with each piece contributing to the researcher’s
understanding of the whole phenomenon. This convergence adds strength to the
findings as the various strands of data are braided together to promote a
greater understanding of the case. Although the opportunity to gather data from
various sources is extremely attractive because of the rigor that can be
associated with this approach, there are dangers. One of them is the collection
of overwhelming amounts of data that require management and analysis. Often,
researchers find themselves “lost” in the data. In order to bring some order to
the data collection a computerized data base is often necessary to organize and
manage the voluminous amount of data.
Handling Data and Reporting
Multiple methods of data collection are used in case study
research. These include observation,
interviews, questionnaires, opinionnaires, tests (psychological and
educational), inventories, recorded data in the form of documents, etc.
Data analysis of the case study
research focuses on the holistic description of the case or cases, including
individual or individuals, community or communities, institution or institutions,
etc. The data analysis may also include cross- case analysis.
Reporting a case study can be a
difficult task for any researcher due to the complex nature of this approach.
It is difficult to report the findings in a concise manner, and yet it is the
researcher’s responsibility to convert a complex phenomenon into a format that
is readily understood by the reader. The goal of the report is to describe the
study in such a comprehensive manner as to enable the reader to feel as if they
had been an active participant in the research and can determine whether or not
the study findings could be applied to their own situation. It is important that
the researcher describes the context within which the phenomenon is occurring
as well as the phenomenon itself.
There is no one correct way to report
a case study. However, some suggested ways are by telling the reader a story,
by providing a chronological report, or by addressing each proposition.
Addressing the propositions ensures that the report remains focused and deals
with the research question.
Final report of the case study is a
rich (vivid and detailed) and holistic (describes the whole and its parts)
description of a case or cases. It is
the detailed discussion of the themes and issues concerning the cases or cases
along with their implications.
Nature of the case study
Case study is an intensive investigation of a social unit. The social unit may be an individual, a
family, a social group, a school, a group of delinquents, dropouts, or any
teenage gang.
In a case study, the researcher
attempts to examine an individual or unit in depth. He gathers pertinent data by a wide variety
of methods such as observation, interview, questionnaire and recorded data
about the present status, past experiences, and environmental forces that
contribute to the behavior of the individual or social unit, and how these factors
relate to one another. The analysis of
the factors and their inter-relationships, help the researcher to construct a
comprehensive and integrated picture of the unit. The purpose is to understand the life cycle
or an important part of the life cycle of the unit over a period of time.
The case study method was originally
used in medicine to examine the patient’s previous development; his health and
physical state form the beginning and many other factors in the past, besides
making a careful study of the patient’s present condition and symptoms. Sigmund Freud used case study method to
assist his subjects in solving their personality problems. The published detailed accounts of his
interviews with patients and his interpretations of their thoughts, dreams, and
actions provide excellent examples of case studies.
Guidance counselors and social workers
conduct case studies for diagnosing a particular condition or problem and
recommending therapeutic measures. They
gather data from a particular individual and confine their interest to the
individual as a unique personality.
Researchers, on the other hand, are interested in individuals as
representative types. They gather data
about a carefully selected sample of individuals so as to derive valid
generalizations about the population that the sample represents.
A case study is not different to a
survey, but instead of collecting information about few factors form a large
number of units the researcher makes a depth and intensive study of a limited
number of representative cases. It is
narrower in scope but more exhaustive and more informative in nature than a
survey. To provide more qualitative
data, the case study is often used to supplement the survey method.
The case studies in general are
classified as descriptive research types; they have sometimes been conducted
for propose of hypothesis testing and taken the form of experimental research. Many case studies, for example, were
conducted to investigate the effects of operant conditioning on human behavior. In a typical study, as reported by Ary et al. (1972, p. 288), the
researcher identifies a specific behavior in his subject and systematically
records the frequency of this behaviour.
Then he introduces an operant conditioning treatment and records the
frequency of this behavior. Then he
introduces and operant conditioning treatment and records the frequency of the
specified behavior during treatment. When
a change is observed in the behavior of the subject as a result of operant
conditioning, the researcher begins reversal conditioning; that is, he uses
operant conditioning to change the behavior back to what it was before the
original conditioning was instituted.
Major Steps of the case study
The
following steps are involved in the conduct of the case study:
1) Determine the present status of
the case:
The first
step is to determine the present status of the individual or the social unit
under investigation through direct observation or measurement. Here the researcher goes far beyond casual
observation or superficial description.
In addition to a physical examination of the subject, a psychological
evaluation designed to determine the general ability level and the emotional
maturity of the case is necessary. There
are numerous standardized tools that are useful to the researcher in this
assessment process. For example, to make
a case study of a delinquent child, the first thing the researcher has to do is to survey the present status of
the child by making an assessment of his
physique, cognitive and non-cognitive factors through direct observation and
administering tests of intelligence, aptitudes and personality.
2) Determine the probable antecedents
of the case and to formulate a hypothesis:
The
next step is to determine the most probable antecedents of the case and to
formulate a fruitful hypothesis or a set of hypotheses through the knowledge of
similar cases. The researcher, for
example, can formulate a hypothesis that the occurrence of delinquent behavior
in a child is due to inadequate home environment, poor teaching in the school,
low mental ability or any other factor.
3) Verification of the hypothesis:
The third
step is verification of the hypothesis.
The case is then checked for the presence of the antecedents supposed to
apply to the situation under investigation.
Here the researcher makes use of the knowledge of the present status and
the history of the case. He should not
over emphasize observational methods and neglect other methods. Van Dalen (1973, p. 209) suggests that a multi-method
approach may serve as a more valid test of a hypothesis. The researcher may ask the case to recall
past experiences or to express present wishes in interviews or
questionnaires. Personal documents, such
as diaries and letters, and various physiological, psychological or
sociological measurements may provide valuable information. Data may be obtained from teachers, friends,
parents, brothers, sisters and other family members.
4) Validation of the diagnosis:
After
verification of the hypothesis, the next step is directed towards further
validation of the diagnosis. Some
remedial measures in the light of the causes found are suggested.
5) Follow up of the case:
The last
step of the case study is the follow up of the case. The case under study is re-examined to
ascertain whether any changes have been produced by the treatments
introduced. If the changes are positive
and significant, the diagnosis is taken to be correct.
Criteria for
judging the quality of research design of a case study
•
Construct validity:
identifying correct operational measures for the concepts being studied
•
Internal validity:
seeking to establish a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are
believed to lead to other conditions
•
External validity:
defining the domain to which a study’s findings can be generalized
•
Reliability:
demonstrating that the operations of a study – such as the data collection
procedures – can be repeated, the same results
Construct
validity
•
Problem
•
Operational
set of measures: objectivity vs. subjectivity
•
Tactics
to overcome problem
•
Use
multiple sources of evidence
•
Establish
chain of evidence
•
Have
key informants review draft case study report
Internal
validity
•
Problem:
•
Mainly
a concern for explanatory case studies
•
Making
inferences in a case study
•
Tactics:
•
Do
pattern matching
•
Do
explanation building
•
Address
rival explanation
•
Use
logic model
External
validity
•
Problem:
•
Is
this study generalizable? This is a major concern in case studies!
•
Tactics:
•
Use
theory in single-case studies
•
Use
replication logic in multiple-case studies.
Reliability
•
Problem:
•
To
minimize errors and biases in a study
•
Tactics:
•
Use
case study protocol
•
Develop
case study database
Advantages of the case studies
Case study
method has the following advantages:
1) The case study attempts to understand an individual
or a unit in depth. It tries to understand
the whole ‘case’ in the totality of his environment. Not only can the present status of an
individual, but his past be thoroughly probed.
2) The case study often provides an opportunity for a researcher
to develop insight into basic aspects of human behavior.
3) The case study helps the researcher to observe events
both within and outside the educational setting in their totality. He notes events in terms of their location in
space and time and interprets results in the light of the relationships and
interdependence of events.
4) A case study may provide insights that will help a
researcher to formulate fruitful hypothesis or a set of hypotheses. Freud, for example, when attempted to probe deeply
into the dynamics of his patients problems, reasoned that the relationships
that he observed between them and their environments might also be the
characteristics of other individuals with similar problems.
Major Limitations of case studies
Case studies
suffer from several limitations. Some of
them are:
1) The case study data are as subjective as data
collected by other research methods. The
elements of subjectivity enter into report, particularly when judgments are
made about the subject’s character and motives.
The researcher’s personal biases and standards may influence his
interpretation. Van Dalen (1973, p. 210)
suggests that facts of a case study must be reported precisely and objectively
and judgments must not be made until adequate evidence supports a
conclusion. The researcher must exercise
every possible precaution to detect data that are the product of “faulty
perception, deliberate deception, a poor memory, unconscious biases, or
reporter’s or subject’s desire to present the right answer”. He should avoid the tendency to over emphasize
unusual events or to distort them for dramatic effect.
2) Although case study method attempts to examine an
individual in depth, it inevitably lacks breadth. The facts about an individual
or social unit may bear little relationship to other cases. Most case studies
generally arise out of counseling or remedial efforts and provide information
of exceptional rather than representative individuals.
3) It is impossible to either confirm or refute through
empirical study the finding and results of a particular case study.
4) A worthwhile case study can rarely be completed by a
single individual. It usually requires a
team of experts which would include psychologists, physicians, social workers,
teachers, parents, and the researcher.
Conclusion
Case study research is more than simply conducting research
on a single individual or situation. This approach has the potential to deal
with simple through complex situations. It enables the researcher to answer
“how” and “why” type questions, while taking into consideration how a
phenomenon is influenced by the context within which it is situated. For the
novice research a case study is an excellent opportunity to gain tremendous
insight into a case. It enables the researcher to gather data from a variety of
sources and to converge the data to illuminate the case.
Reference
ž James .H. MC Millian (1993),Research
in education,Haper collins college publishers.
ž John.W.Best and James .V.Khan
(2004).Research in education, Prentice-Hall of India private limited. New Delhi
110001
ž John W Cresswel (1994) Research
Design. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Sage publishers, New Delhi.
ž V.K. Shastri (2008), Research
methodology in Education, Authors press, New Delhi.
ž Lokesh koul (1997) .methodology of educational
research ,vikas publishing house pvt limited .
ž Bhatnagar.R.P (2005) .readings in
methodology of research in education,surya publication Meerut.
ž Sharma.S.R (2008) .methods of
Educational research, Anmol publications pvt ltd NewDelhi .
ž Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of
case study research. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
ž Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study
research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
