LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM- BEd notes-Language as tool for communication in variety contexts across different disciplines.

 

LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM-BEd Notes

Unit 1 – Knowing language across the curriculum

Prepared by

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 

 

Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com 

Contents

1. Language as tool for communication in variety contexts across different disciplines.

   1. Define of language and communication.

   2. Nature and characteristics of language.

   3. Importance of language.

   4. Types of communication.

   5. Role of language in human communication and classroom communication.

   6. Barriers in classroom communication.

   7. Nature of discipline and language expressions for teachers and learners in classroom context.

   8. Examples for linguistic variety with respect to specific school subjects.

       

       

      1. Language as tool for communication in variety contexts across different disciplines.

      1. Definition of language and communication

      Language -Definition

      Language is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice, sounds, gestures or written symbols.

      Language is a system of conventional spoken, manual or written symbols by means of which human beings as members of social group and participants in its culture express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression and emotional release.

      Communication-Definition

      Communication is derived from Latin word ‘communis’ meaning common. Communication is the process of commonness of thought between a sender and a receiver.

      Communication is the exchange, imparting or transmission of ideas, information, opinions or thoughts transmitted electronically or by gestures, speech or writing.

      Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver – G.G.Brown.

      Communication is intercourse by words, letters or messages - Fred G. Meyer.

      Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas information, signals or messages through appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions. This broad definition includes body language, skills of speaking and writing.

      2. Nature and characteristics of language

   9. Language is human

   10. Language is primarily speech which is uniquely human

   11. Language is symbolic

   12. Language is arbitrary (no mutual connection between letter and reality)

   13. Language is systematic

   14. Language is dynamic

   15. Language is complete (we can communicate all our ideas)

   16. Language is a cultural phenomenon

   17. Language is a social activity

   18. Language is conventional (practice in particular society)

   19. Language is a purposeful activity

   20. Language is learned behaviour

   3. Importance of language

   Language can be regarded as:

2. Vehicle of thought

3. Medium of expression

4. Medium of communication

5. Communication with other countries

6. Mental development

7. Basis of education

8. Medium of literature

9. Growth and civilization

10. Development of peace

4. Types of communication

• Verbal or non verbal

• Intra personal or interpersonal

• Group dynamics

• Organisational communication

• Cross cultural communication

Language and communication

Language is characterized as a tool for communication. We use language to Exchange ideas, ask question, make request, express emotions, indicate doubt etc. Language is primary vehicle of communication. Language is the vehicle we use in presenting our ideas, thoughts, feelings and opinions. Language reflects both the personality of the individual and the culture of his history. In turn it shapes the personality and culture. Language makes possible the growth and transmission of culture, the continuity of societies and the effective functioning of social group. That is why whenever a country, people or race conquers; the first thing that will be affected will be conquered language

5. Role of language in human communication

Language is central to leaning for every individual. Language enables individuals to give expressions to their feelings, ideas and concerns. As they mature it is through language that they will communicate their personal needs and claim their rightful place in society.

Role of language in classroom communication

Language is the primary tool through which teachers mediate and through which the students access the whole curriculum. Language helps teachers to deal with challenges in a classroom in a positive way. Language helps in structuring the classroom environment. Language helps to form rules of interaction need to be explored and taught in a variety of contexts. Language helps teacher to facilitate learning through questioning, prompting, guidance and discussion, developing self confidence and self esteem. It also helps teacher for creating a communicative environment for oral language development and literacy development.

Tips for effective classroom communication

We communicate through

Verbal – What we say – 7% (Words)

Vocal –How we say – 38% (Message & voice)

Visual – What our body says -55% (Non verbal)

Verbal component

Know your audience

Use words that are familiar & easy to use.

Vocal component (Voice quality, vocal variety)

Use pitch & inflection to convey emotion

(for e.g. high pitch for excitement & low pitch for sombre moments)

Articulation – the ability to say words correctly (Practise tongue twisters)

Use resonance for quality (relax your throat)

Open your mouth and allow the sounds to flow.

Vary your rate of speech.

Visual component (body language)

Stance & posture (exhibits confidence & knowledge)

Stand erect & keep your foot appropriately

Try to relax

Establish eye contact

Talk to them not to floor or ceiling

Settle eye contact on one person for about 4-5 seconds then move to another person for the same length of time.

Enhance presentation with appropriate hand gestures

Show expression in face (joy, sadness, excitement or confusion etc.,)

Be sincere

6. Barriers to effective classroom communication

Environmental factors

Distance between sender and receiver

Noise

Gloomy atmosphere

Psychological factors

Anger, Tension, Fear, Fatigue

Linguistic factors

Strange pronunciation

Wrong word order

Improper words

Poor organisation

Instrumental factors

Trouble in instruments (computer, telephone etc.,)

Connectivity (internet)

Presentation factors

Inaudibility

Over speed

Overcrowding of information

Lack of harmony between verbal and non verbal aspects of communication

Language as a subject and language in other subjects

Language as a subject is responsible for language education i.e., development of language competencies such as listening, reading, interacting, speaking and writing. Every learner has the right to be equipped with these fundamental language competencies for their future learning, for developing their identity, for finding their place in job market and for participating in society as social agent and democratic citizen. Education in language(s) of schooling is equally necessary in other non-linguistic subjects.

There are many communication requirements in all other subjects such as biology, history, mathematics etc., they include:

• Reading and understanding expository texts, which are often different in structure on the disciplinary content.

• Listening to explanation of complex issues by the teacher

• Answering questions orally and in written mode

• Presenting results of investigation and study

• Participating in task oriented discussions

Language learning is always subject learning at the same time. Language competence therefore is an integral part of subject competence. Without adequate language competencies a learner can neither properly follow the content that is being taught, nor communicate with others.

Language in other subject contexts is not limited to learning new concept through new system of terminology which reflects the knowledge structures of a particular subject. It requires new ways of thinking within the framework of one particular subject or of group of subjects (e.g. natural science or social science) and their specific approaches for reality and viewing the world. It requires new ways of communicating of understanding and producing a variety of text types or genres of engaging with specialised forms of discourse which follows certain traditions conventions & expectations

The term text type relates to the possibilities of classifying texts according to general or universal criteria (e.g. narration, description/exposition, argumentation, instruction, etc.,). It cannot be restricted to texts, but includes all types of oral and written communication in subject- specific texts (e.g. summary of observation/report on the result of a search on internet). The term genre, on the other hand relates more or less conventionalised form of presenting meaning shared by a specific community and realised in form of discourse in specific setting (e.g. scientific articles, research texts, manuals, text book, lectures, encyclopaedias etc.,)

The difference between language as a subject & language in other subjects is reduced sometimes to matter of simply learning new words & terminologies in dealing with other subjects and their content. This is too narrow view. There is indeed need to establish a shared terminology. Subject learning is to adopt the ways of thinking of a new subject to understand major issues, the settled & unsettled questions to comprehend and participate in the ways of discovery, of categorising, of modelling& of reasoning to develop efficient communication strategies for oral & written exchanges in a cohesive and coherent manner.

7. Nature of discipline and language expressions for teachers and learners in classroom context.

Learning in any subject area requires the use of language; therefore, listening, speaking, reading and writing are used as tools for learning that subject area. The more fluent students become as readers, writers, speakers, and listeners, the clearer, more coherent, and more flexible their thinking will become.

Basic English language

Basic English is a system consisting of 850 carefully selected words. It has the coverage of nearly 25,000 words of normal English that are commonly used. Of all the words in the dictionary, only 25,000 are actively used and roughly not more than 8500 are used by those who speak English. Analysis and close study of meaning of words have revealed that in English, for every word denoting a basic concept or idea there are about 10 synonymns. Of 850 words, 600 are nouns, 150 are adjectives, 18 are verbs, 20 prepositions, 62 include pronouns, conjugations, question words etc. Later 250 idioms, 100 scientific terms and special technical terms were added.

The learning outcomes that teacher use to explicitly teach language in every subject may include the following:

• Subject-specific vocabulary, e.g. balance sheet, reagent bottles, legato, etc.

• Familiarity with subject specific word formation, i.e. prefixes, suffixes, word roots, etc,

e.g. in Science the suffix ‘…ology’

• Forms of expression, e.g. “The sum of 100 and X is less than half of X, what is the value of X?”; or, “Do you agree with the viewpoint portrayed in the cartoon?” Justify your argument. etc.

• Competency and skills required for comprehending, identifying, selecting and integrating information in connection with specific text types, tasks and materials, e.g. “Extrapolate from the graph”, “Write a hypothesis relevant to the experiment”, “Compare Source A and Source B”, etc.

8. Nature of Subject & specific classroom expressions

History

History is a language rich subject. Language (and reason) plays a significant role in learning and making history. We generally learn history by reading books, watching documentaries and media, and of course, listening to teachers. Historical records are based in language and so to is understanding the feelings and reasons for why things happened in the past. Because language changes, there may also be a need for some vocabulary that captures the past meaning of words and expressions that are not in current use by students today.

Language in History typically deals with recounts, accounts, explanations, exposition, rebuttal challenges, and discussion. They may, for example, need to recount historical figures, report on causal relationships, explain consequences, justify positions with evidence, challenge other interpretations, or compare and contrast multiple interpretations of historical events. Common grammatical structures include passive voice and conversions of verbs into nouns (resist into resistance).

COMMON VOCABULARY IN HISTORY

Vocabulary in History most commonly refers to concepts, titles, historical movements, and event-specific language and terminology.

The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the History classroom.

Alliance, anarchy, authority, characteristic, civilization, communism, democracy, development, dictate, dynasty, economy, historian, impact, industry, influence, migration, monarch, obstacle, peasant, philosophy, propaganda, resistance, socialism, struggle, tension, conflict, reason.

WORD FORMATION

Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary.

The following five prefixes are examples of what may be found in the History classroom.

Prefixes Meaning Key Word

de- opposite devolve

fore- before foresee

mis- wrongly misrepresent

sub- under sub-current

un- not unrealistic

The following five suffixes are examples of what may be found in the History classroom.

Suffixes Meaning Key Word

-able, -ible can be done changeable

-ic having characteristics of democratic

-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition act, process demonstration

-ment action or process movement

-s, -es more than one soldiers

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY CLASSROOM

Comparing and contrasting:

Sample Question:

Compare the policies of Mussolini with those of Hitler.

Discuss the impacts of an event on society:

Sample Question:

“Discuss the impacts of the “Reform movements on Kerala society.”

Apply chronology:

Which of these lists shows the correct order/sequence?

Which event best completes the timeline?

Geography

Geography like all the humanities is also a language rich subject. There is even a Language Geography (study of the geographical distribution of languages). Geography is also a science and as such it contains many scientific terms and descriptive concepts that need to be included in students’ vocabulary lists. Language Outcomes in Geography should include the explicit teaching of writing argumentative essays that draw upon data from sources (including maps and diagrams) to concisely express logical conclusions.

Language in Geography typically deals with analysis, explanations, exposition, interpretation, and discussion. As such, students may reflect on issues of physical, human and environmental geography. They may, for example, need to report on other people and places; how they interrelate; the significance of location; human and physical environments; causes and consequences of change; geographical patterns and processes, etc. Linguistically, students should be able to decode concepts and vocabulary by using their understanding of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and nomenclature and common expressions., Student need to read texts and interpret graphs and diagrams (including maps) for context clues. Common grammatical structures examine cause and effect, and include passive voice and conversions of verbs into nouns (originate into origin).

COMMON VOCABULARY IN GEOGRAPHY

Vocabulary in Geography most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology. 'Key words’ are an essential part of trying to understand and then explain how patterns and processes work in Geography.

The following key words are a small sample frequently used in the Geography classroom in just one topic, “Drought”:

Physical Key Words Human Key Words

Drought Reservoir

Precipitation Environmental

Ground water Water shortage

Water table Economic

Aquifer Demand

Evaporation Social

Infiltration Supply

Runoff Sustainable

Watercycle Impact

Climate Strategy

Rainfall Dam

Permeable / impermeable Water usage

Porous Consumption

Weather Viewpoint

Drainage basin Cause

Percolation Climate change

Average rainfall / temperature Management

Recharge Stress

WORD FORMATION

The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Geography classroom.

Prefixes Meaning Key Word

en-, em- cause to emigrate

over- over overgrazed

pre- before precipitation

semi- half semi-urban

sub- under suburb

Suffixes Meaning Key Word

-able, -ible can be done arable

-al, -ial having characteristics of continental

-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition act, process erosion

-ic having characteristics of tectonic

-ing* present participle verb form weathering

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE GEOGRAPHY CLASSROOM

Interpret geographic patterns:

Sample Question:

Based on the map provided, describe the location of tropical rainforests.

Sample Answer:

The map suggests that tropical rainforests usually occur in areas of high temperature and low areas around rivers.

Compare and contrast:

Sample Question:

Compare and contrast the farming systems of irrigation farming in Southern California with nomadic herding in the Sahel.

Sample Answer:

A key difference between the two farming systems lies in the input of capital and technology.

Explain causal relationships:

Sample Question:

Explain the formation of an oceanic trench in the Pacific Ocean.

Sample Question:

Oceanic trenches in the Pacific Ocean were caused by shifts in tectonic plates.

Explanation and Assessment

Sample Question:

To what extent are the government’s actions a major reason for the industrial relocation of iron and steel plants in China?

Sample Answer:

On the one hand, the governmental policies affect location. On the other hand, factors such as raw material and power resources are just as important.

Illustrate with examples:

Sample Question:

Explain how sustainability can be applied to urban planning.

Sample Answer:

Sustainable urban planning should involve economic, social and environmental aspects.

Mathematics

There is no doubt that mathematics is itself a language. Teaching and learning of this subject requires a sound grasp of the unique nomenclature of the English of mathematics. This is not just about a specific vocabulary, but also a way of framing sentences and statements to have contextual meaning.

e.g. “The sum of the two integers is 10”

Language skills in mathematics include the ability

• to perform basic computations,

• to use basic mathematical concepts in practical situations,

• to make reasonable estimates,

• to understand graphs, charts, and numerical concepts in language,

• to manage data,

• to handle money and do stock inventories.

They may, in addition, need to represent word problems mathematically,

• explain or justify mathematical reasoning,

• describe procedures,

• recount how a problem was solved,

• define and relate mathematical concepts,

• evaluate or construct mathematical arguments and

• interpret and explain proofs.

COMMON VOCABULARY IN MATHEMATICS

Vocabulary in Mathematics most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology.

The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Math classroom.

Addition, calculate, circle, complete, cube, division, divisor, estimate, least, mass, multiply, numerator, pattern, position, prime numbers, product, prove, rectangle, relationship, scale, shape.

WORD FORMATION

Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary.

The following five prefixes are examples of what may be found in the Maths classroom.

Prefixes Meaning Key Word

dis- not, opposite of disperse

in-, im- in impossible

over- over overall

sub- under subdivision

un- not unravel

The following five suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Maths classroom.

Suffixes Meaning Key Word

-est comparative biggest

-al, -ial having characteristics of binomial

-ed* past-tense verbs squared

-ive, -ative, -itive adjective form of a noun derivative

-s, -es more than one vertexes

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE MATHS CLASSROOM

Concept Clarification:

Sample Question:

Which of the following is NOT a function? Why?

(a) y = x² (b) x = y² (c) y = sin x

Typical Answer:

x = y² is NOT an function because when x = 1 , y can takes 2 different values 1

and −1 .

Proofs:

Sample Question:

Prove that ΔABC is a right angled triangle.

Sample Answer:

Q c2 = a2 + b2

Hence ΔABC is a right angled triangle. (Pythagoras’ Theorem)

Setting Up and Solving Equations:

A father is 3 times as old as his son. In 20 years’ time, the father’s age will be double that of the son. Find the son’s age.

Sample Question: Solve 3x + 20 = 2(x + 20)

Answer: 3 +20 =2 (x+20)

3x + 20 = 2x + 40

X= 20

Science

The language of science is a combination of the specialist terms needed to access the subjects of Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Students in these subjects will need to learn the vocabulary of these sciences, from the scientific names of plants, to the names of the elements of the periodic table. Science is also the language of inquiry; it is about investigation, hypothesizing, and using evidence. Science is considered by many to be a language of itself, without the logical rational thinking processes of science (and the language needed to create it) knowledge wouldn’t be created.

COMMON VOCABULARY IN SCIENCE

Vocabulary in Science most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology.

The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Science classroom.

accuracy, atom, compound, dissolve, evaporation, fission, force, fusion, galaxy, gravity, hypothesis, investigation, kinetic, liquid, mass, , matter, motion, movement, notation, observation, precision, theory, variable, velocity, volume.

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY CLASSROOM

Compare and Contrast

Sample Question:

Compare and contrast the mitosis and meiosis.

Sample Answer:

The similarities between the processes of mitosis and meiosis are that both involve nuclear division, duplication and replication of DNA/ chromosomes, and the movement of chromosomes along the spindle fibers. Both also involve spindle formation.

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE PHYSICS CLASSROOM

Description

Sample Question:

Describe and explain the effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis.

Sample Answer:

At low light intensity, rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to light intensity, since light provide energy for photosynthesis to take place. At high light intensity, increase in light intensity has no effect on rate of photosynthesis because other factors become limiting.

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN SCIENCE CLASSROOM

Sequence:

Sample Question:

Explain the production process for chocolate.

Sample Answer:

To produce chocolate, coca first needs to be harvested, then refined to cocoa beans, and finally shipped to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, coaching and grinding.

Some interesting parts of science words

Word Meaning

hemo blood

hyper above

hypo below

intra within, inside

itis disease, inflammation

lateral side

logy study of

lys break down

meter measurement

mono one, single

Morph form

micro small

macro large

Multi many

Pod foot

Music

Language is essential in music, but should not be mixed up with ‘musical language’. The best known and probably most widely acknowledged specialized music language is Western music (five-line staff) notation.

Language Outcomes in Music should include the explicit teaching of musical vocabulary. Outcomes should also ensure the development of language skill in expressing ‘feelings’ and emotions in music appreciation as well as arguments in music critique.

Language in Music typically deals with representing musical elements symbolically, justifying musical techniques, describing and interpreting performances, recounting history of musical forms, defining, relating or contrasting music concepts, and nomenclature and common expressions. As such, students should be able to evaluate musician communities and genres as well as participate in classroom discussions, evaluate music, and critique recent performances, concert reviews, etc. Music also includes non-linguistic language such as the nonverbal signals used in conducting and in musical notation. Linguistically, students should be able to relate vocabulary to content such as tempo, andante and allegro or blend, chord, note, etc. They should also be able to interpret musical score syntax organizing text with two staves, clef, time signature, tempo indicated in a specific place, sharps and flats appearing in designated places, etc.

COMMON VOCABULARY IN MUSIC

Vocabulary in Music most commonly deals with concepts, musical syntax, song organization, and subject-specific terminology.

The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in the Music classroom.

Cappella, beat, chord, composer, contour, duration, dynamics, elements, form, forte, harmony, measure, melody, meter, mezzo, notation, piano, pitch, rhythm, rote, signature, style, tempo, timber, unison.

WORD FORMATION

Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary. The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Music classroom.

Prefixes Meaning Key Word

en-, em- cause to ensemble

inter- between intermission

mis- wrongly miscount

re- again return

trans- across transpose

Suffixes Meaning Key Word

-er comparative higher

-ment action or process enjoyment

-ous, -eous, -ious possessing the qualities of joyous

-s, -es more than one sheets

-y characterized by harmony

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN THE MUSIC CLASSROOM

Classroom language used in music mainly involves listening and singing songs, and then discussing rhythm, melody, pattern etc.

Compare and contrast:

Compare the melody of ‘Today’ and ‘Do you hear the people sing?’ regarding the following two aspects: (i). Rhythm and (ii). Pitch

Sample Answer:

The difference between the two songs is that “Do you hear the people sing” is in triplets and a higher pitch than “Today”.

Describing music:

Sample Question:

Discuss the music in the song “We Will Rock You”.

Sample Answer:

The song “We Will Rock You” is representative of rock and roll opera because of its strong rhythm that inspires the listener to stand up, clap and get energetic.

Describing voices:

In the song “My Heart Will Go On”, describe the voice of the singer.

Sample Answer:

“My Heart Will Go On” is sung by a soprano who annunciates the words clearly and sustains good pitch for a long time. She clearly has good breathing and is singing from her stomach.

Physical Education

Teaching and learning in Physical Education (PE) is a rich combination of the language of science, health and the language of sport. It combines terms taken from biology and physics as well as terms from psychology and health. Intermingled are terms from sports such as coaching, refereeing and even the unique language of sport’s media.

Language Outcomes in Physical Education should include explicit teaching of sports language, coaching language and related science terminology (e.g. physiological and biological terms). PE should outcomes should also include a focus on the language skills needed to write concise, ‘reports’ style statements pertaining to the analysis of data and graphs.

Language in Physical Education typically deals with descriptions, procedures, explanations, regulations, rules and analysis. As such, students may need to give a description of a muscle response naming body parts; an account of a student’s physical actions; the results of sporting action (e.g. baseball: “That pitch went wild”); discuss rules for a new game; explain why it is important to be physically active (such as stretching in warming up exercises); and analyze evidence (e.g. body fat index analysis). Linguistically, students should be able to decode concepts and vocabulary by using their understanding of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and more, as well as read within related clusters of vocabulary for context clues. Common grammatical structures include cause-effect relations and passive voice.

COMMON VOCABULARY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Vocabulary in Physical Education most commonly deals with concepts, processes, physical features, and subject-specific terminology. The following 25 words are a small sample of words frequently used in PE.

Athlete, basket, bat, beat, catch, circuit, court, draw, goal, kick, match, medal, miss, net, pitch, record, referee, save, score, shoot, spectators, stadium, tackle, whistle.

WORD FORMATION

Understanding word formation is also essential for decoding unfamiliar vocabulary. The following five prefixes and suffixes are examples of what may be found in the Physical Education classroom

Prefixes Meaning Key Word

de- opposite deflect

super- above superstar

over- over overtones

mid- middle midway

in-, im- in infield

Suffixes Meaning Key Word

-able, -ible can be done comfortable

-ed past-tense verbs hopped

-ful full of careful

-ing present participle verb form running

-less without fearless

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Benefits and advantages:

Sample Question:

Discuss the impact of introducing gambling into sport.

Sample Answer:

Firstly, introducing gambling may be beneficial because there will be more income for the sports industry and the government. In addition, spectator attendance will increase because of a desire to win money. On the other hand, gambling will have a negative impact on young people who will focus more on results rather than process.

Cause and Effect:

Sample Question:

Which kind of sports would increase the chance of head injury?

Sample Answer:

All contact sports such as rugby, basketball, boxing, have the potential to increase the chance of head injury.

Compare and contrast:

Sample Question:

Compare the energy source of aerobic system with those of anaerobic system.

Sample Answer:

In general, the main source of energy for the aerobic system is fat and glycogen (lower exercise intensity is aerobic). In comparison, the main source for the anaerobic is phosphocreatine and glycogen (the higher intensity).

Identification:

Sample Question:

Identify three functions of the skeletal system.

Sample Answer:

The three functions include movement, support, and protecting the internal organs.

Process:

Sample Question:

What immediate care should be taken if a volleyball player sprains his ankle?

Sample Answer:

To care for a sprained ankle you should first rest the leg, then ice it and apply compression. Finally, you should elevate the leg.

 

Prepared by 

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 

Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com

Approaches to Sociology of Education ( Symbolic Interaction, Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory)- FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION-Educational Studies UNIT-1-post10

Educational Studies UNIT-1-post10

 FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION

Prepared by

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)

 

Precise notes.

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Approaches to Sociology of Education ( Symbolic Interaction, Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory) 

 Historically, American education served both political and economic needs, which dictated the function of
education. Today, sociologists and educators debate the function of education. Three main theories represent their views: the functionalist theory, the conflict theory, and the symbolic interactionist theory.
 

The functionalist theory

The functionalist theory focuses on the ways that universal education serves the needs of society.
Functionalists first see education in its manifest role: conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next
generation. Durkheim (the founder of functionalist theory) identified the latent role of education as one of
socializing people into society's mainstream. This “moral education,” as he called it, helped form a
more‐cohesive social structure by bringing together people from diverse backgrounds, which echoes the
historical concern of “Americanizing” immigrants.
Functionalists point to other latent roles of education such as transmission of core values and social control. The core values in American education reflect those characteristics that support the political and economic systems that originally fueled education. Therefore, children in America receive rewards for following schedules, following directions, meeting deadlines, and obeying authority.
The most important value permeating the American classroom is individualism—the ideology
that advocates the liberty rights, or independent action, of the individual. American students learn early, unlike their Japanese or Chinese counterparts, that society seeks out and reveres the best individual, whether that person achieves the best score on a test or the most points on the basketball court. Even collaborative activities focus on the leader, and team sports single out the one most valuable player of the year. The carefully constructed curriculum helps students develop their identities and self‐esteem. Conversely, Japanese students, in a culture that values
community in place of individuality, learn to be ashamed if someone singles them out, and learn social esteem—how to bring honor to the group, rather than to themselves.
Going to school in a capitalist nation, American students also quickly learn the importance
of competition, through both competitive learning games in the classroom, and through activities and athletics outside the classroom. Some kind of prize or reward usually motivates them to
play, so students learn early to associate winning with possessing. Likewise, schools overtly
teach patriotism, a preserver of political structure. Students must learn the Pledge of Allegiance
and the stories of the nation's heroes and exploits. The need to instill patriotic values is so great that mythology often takes over, and teachers repeat stories of George Washington's honesty or Abraham Lincoln's virtue even though the stories themselves (such as Washington confessing to chopping down the cherry tree) may be untrue.
Another benefit that functionalists see in education is sorting—separating students on the basis of merit. Society's needs demand that the most capable people get channeled into the most important occupations. Schools identify the most capable students early. Those who score highest on classroom and standardized tests enter accelerated programs and college‐preparation courses. Sociologists Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis, and Wilbert Moore referred to this as social placement. They saw this process as a beneficial function in society.
After sorting has taken place, the next function of education, networking (making interpersonal
connections), is inevitable. People in high school and college network with those in similar classes and majors. This networking may become professional or remain personal. The most significant role of education in this regard is matchmaking. Sociologists primarily interest themselves in how sorting and networking lead couples together of similar backgrounds, interests, education, and income potential. People place so much importance on this function of education that some parents limit their children's options for college to insure that they attend schools where they can meet the “right” person to marry.
Functionalists point to the ironic dual role of education in both preserving and changing culture.
Studies show that, as students progress through college and beyond, they usually become
increasingly liberal as they encounter a variety of perspectives. Thus, more educated individuals
are generally more liberal, while less educated people tend toward conservatism. Moreover, the heavy emphasis on research at most institutions of higher education puts them on the cutting edge of changes in knowledge, and, in many cases, changes in values as well. Therefore, while the primary role of education is to preserve and pass on knowledge and skills, education is also in the business of transforming them.
A final and controversial function assumed by education in the latter half of the twentieth century
is replacement of the family. Many issues of career development, discipline, and human sexuality—once the domain of the family—now play a routine part in school curriculum. Parents who reject this function of education often choose to home‐school their children or place them in private schools that support their values.

The conflict theory

 
Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education
as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society;
however, conflict theorists see the educational system as perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.
Both functionalists and conflict theorists agree that the educational system practices sorting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting. Functionalists claim that schools sort based upon
merit; conflict theorists argue that schools sort along distinct class and ethnic lines. According to conflict theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower‐class member of society. Conflict theorists call this role of education the “hidden curriculum.”
Conflict theorists point to several key factors in defending their position. First, property taxes fund most schools; therefore, schools in affluent districts have more money. Such areas are predominantly white. They can afford to pay higher salaries, attract better teachers, and purchase newer texts and more technology. Students who attend these schools gain substantial advantages in getting into the best colleges and being tracked into higher‐paying professions.
Students in less affluent neighborhoods that do not enjoy these advantages are less likely to go to
college and are more likely to be tracked into vocational or technical training. They also represent far higher numbers of minority students.

Conflict theorists contend that not only do the economics favor the white affluent, but so does
school testing—particularly IQ testing, which schools can use to sort students. They argue that
the tests, which claim to test intelligence, actually test cultural knowledge and therefore exhibit a cultural bias. For example, a question may ask: 

“Which one of these items belongs in an orchestra?

 A. accordion B. guitar C. violin D. banjo.” 

This question assumes considerable cultural knowledge, including what an orchestra is, how it differs from a band, and what instruments comprise an orchestra. The question itself assumes exposure to a particular kind of music favored by white upper classes. Testing experts claim they have rid modern exams of such culturally biased questioning, but conflict theorists respond that cultural neutrality is impossible.
All tests contain a knowledge base, and that knowledge base is always culturally sensitive.
Conflict theorists see education not as a social benefit or opportunity, but as a powerful means of
maintaining power structures and creating a docile work force for capitalism.

The symbolic interactionist theory

 
Symbolic interactionists limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe happening
in the classroom. They focus on how teacher expectations influence student performance,
perceptions, and attitudes.
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted the landmark study for this approach in 1968.
First, they examined a group of students with standard IQ tests. The researchers then identified a
number of students who they said would likely show a sharp increase in abilities over the coming year. They informed the teachers of the results, and asked them to watch and see if this increase did occur. When the researchers repeated the IQ tests at the end of the year, the students identified by the researchers did indeed show higher IQ scores. The significance of this study lies in the fact that the researchers had randomly selected a number of average students. The
researchers found that when the teachers expected a particular performance or growth, it occurred. This phenomenon, where a false assumption actually occurs because someone predicted it, is called a self‐fulfilling prophesy. For example, the stock market may be stable with rising values. If investors become afraid that the market will crash, however, they may suddenly sell their stocks, which causes the market to crash. The crash occurred simply because investors
feared it would do so. Ray Rist conducted research similar to the Rosenthal‐Jacobson study in 1970. In a kindergarten classroom where both students and teacher were African American, the teacher assigned
students to tables based on ability; the “better” students sat at a table closer to her, the
“average” students sat at the next table, and the “weakest” students sat at the farthest table.
Rist discovered that the teacher assigned the students to a table based on the teacher's
perception of the students' skill levels on the eighth day of class, without any form of testing to
verify the placement. Rist also found that the students the teacher perceived as “better” learners
came from higher social classes, while the “weak” students were from lower social classes.
Monitoring the students through the year, Rist found that the students closer to the teacher
received the most attention and performed better. The farther from the teacher a student sat, the
weaker that student performed. Rist continued the study through the next several years and found
that the labels assigned to the students on the eighth day of kindergarten followed them throughout their schooling.
While symbolic‐interactionist sociologists can document this process, they have yet to define the
exact process of how teachers form their expectations or how students may communicate subtle
messages to teachers about intelligence, skill, and so forth.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

 
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. Theorists Herman and Reynolds (1994) note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the social world rather than simply being acted upon. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism though he never published his work on it (LaRossa and Reitzes 1993). Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer, coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined these basic
premises: humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society; the meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances (Blumer 1969). If you love books, for example, a symbolic interactionist might propose that you learned that books are good or important in the interactions you had with family, friends, school, or church; maybe your family had a special reading time each week, getting your library card was treated as a special event, or bedtime stories
were associated with warmth and comfort.
Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for patterns of interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one interactions.
For example, while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message.
The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society led sociologists like Erving Goffman (1922– 1982) to develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis. Goffman used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people’s interactions showed patterns of cultural “scripts.” Because it can be unclear what part a person may play in a given situation, he or she has to improvise his or her role as the situation unfolds (Goffman 1958).
Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are more likely to use qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews or participant observation, because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research subjects live.

Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society. This approach is often used to understand what’s defined as deviant within a society. There is no absolute definition of deviance, and different societies have
constructed different meanings for deviance, as well as associating different behaviors with deviance. One situation that illustrates this is what you believe you’re to do if you find a wallet in the street. In the United States, turning the wallet in to local authorities would be considered the appropriate action, and to keep the wallet would be seen as deviant. In contrast, many Eastern societies would consider it much more appropriate to keep the wallet and search for the owner yourself; turning it over to someone else, even the authorities, would be considered deviant behavior.

Criticism
Research done from this perspective is often scrutinized because of the difficulty of remaining objective. Others criticize the extremely narrow focus on symbolic interaction.
Proponents, of course, consider this one of its greatest strengths.

What is Conflict Theory?

 
Conflict Theory, developed by Karl Marx, purports that due to society’s never- ending competition for finite resources it will always be in a state of conflict.
The implication of this theory is that those in possession of wealth and resources will protect and hoard those resources, while those without will do
whatever they can to obtain them. This dynamic means there is a constant struggle between the rich and the poor.

What Does Conflict Theory Attempt to Explain?

 
Conflict theory examines any social phenomenon through the lens that there is a natural human instinct towards conflict. Marx is not saying that conflict is
good or bad, but instead that it is an unavoidable aspect of human nature and helps explain why things are. For example, conflict theory can be used to look at wars, violence, revolutions, and other forms of injustice and discrimination by explaining that there is a natural disparity in a society that causes these problems.

Applications of Conflict Theory in Finance

 
In terms of financial resources, governments seek to manage conflict by reallocating resources between the rich and the poor. Governments have several mechanisms for influencing the distribution of resources including progressive taxes, minimum wages, incentives, special programs, social assistance, and regulations. The theory is that if the wealth gap becomes too wide, social unrest will ensue. If the government doesn’t help reduce the degree of inequality, conflict will run out of control and protests, movement, or even civil wars will break out.

Bailouts, Government, and Politics

 
A proponent of conflict theory would argue that the 2008 financial crisis, government bailouts, and the Occupy Wall Street movement were all inevitable. The argument would be that the wealth gap had grown too wide and competition over resources had grown so great that some type of a redistribution and crisis management was required.
Approximately a decade later now it appears the wealth gap has widened and social discontent is on the rise as populist politics becomes front and center.
Consistent with conflict theory, as the divide between the rich and poor grows, tensions rise, politics become divisive and the stage is set for conflict.

Prepared by

Sabarish P (MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 

Contact  

email: pklsabarish@gmail.com

 

PRAGMATISM IN MODERN EDUCATION-FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION-Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 09

 

Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 09

 FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION

Prepared by

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)

 

Precise notes.

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PRAGMATISM IN MODERN EDUCATION

Pragmatism is closely related to modern education. The slogan of this ideology is 'change'. According to it the world is liable to change. Nothing is permanent here in the world and no principle is true and valid for all times. All things are liable to change. In many countries, communities and sections of society which were rural and agrarian are now urban and industrialized. Such a change is occurring in our country also. After independence vast transformations have occurred in the fields of politics, economics and social living. These changes may not be according to our plans, but nevertheless, changes are definitely taking place in all fields of human activity after the attainment of independence in 1947 A.D. We see that
needs of our life have now changed and will be changing in future also. This change has its effect upon our education and educational institutions also. The credit of introducing Pragmatism into education goes to two social thinkers namely William James and John Dewey. According to John Dewey, the real value of a thing lies in its utility for human welfare. Education will also be useful and purposeful if it contributes to human welfare and progress. All the aspects of education should be conducive to human good and human growth. Then only, they will become real and true.
It the process of education does not promote human
welfare, then all the aspects of education are of no use, and must be changed to become desirable and beneficial. Pragmatism holds firmly that any specific educational process cannot be regarded as final and useful for all times to come. It must change according to the changing needs and requirements of the changing society. It must be noted that in a progressive society only those educational processes and institutions can remain alive and active which are flexible enough to satisfy the ever changing needs of society and which provide real life experiences together with adaptable attitudes to make people dynamic, resourceful, efficient and enterprising in the modern challenging times. According to Pragmatism, mere gaining of knowledge for the sake of knowledge is not the real aim of education. According to this ideology, the various aspects of education namely—mental, religious and aesthetic are the various modes of human activity. Pragmatists firmly hold that through these various activities a human being creates his own ideals and values. Hence, all these activities
must fulfil his needs and prove useful to him. This belief of the pragmatists clearly shows that education is not the dynamic side of philosophy, but philosophy itself is evolved from education. In other words, it is education which gives birth to philosophy. According to John Dewey—"Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general sense."
Pragmatism has promoted a new consciousness and
awakening in the field of modern education with the result that old ideals, beliefs, traditions and narrow angles of vision are dying out. This ideology emphasizes inductive method of gaining knowledge. This method inspires in the child a heuristic and investigating spirit to research and formation of new values which are useful to modern living and which can be safely verified and proved right and real by experiments and experiences. In this way, Pragmatism
upholds the supreme value of man and prescribes freedom of thinking, experimenting and experiencing for him. Not only this, it lays emphasis upon flexibility, utility and adjustment in all fields of human activity promoting the continuous development of individual and society to the fullest extent.

PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION 

Pragmatism does not believe in any "central transcendental core of personality running through and unifying" the various situations in life. Personality is "an empirical thing", "and is a function of each social situation as it arises." In such a world of fluctuating personalities, all that education can do is "to transmit the social backgrounds and outlooks characteristic of the community as a whole to all members of the rising generation." In other words, the aim of education is to prepare the child for membership in the modern community. Further as a corollary to this aim, the function is to give such
techniques to the children as to enable them to solve the present-day problems efficiently. Thus the purpose of education is to turn children into good pragmatists, that is, to teach them "to take one thing at a time, and solve their problems co-operatively, with new techniques for new situations" according to the demands of the occasion.
Realism would like to educate the individual for becoming "an unresisting bit of matter". It wants to expose him entirely to the almighty influence of the all pervading physical law. On the other hand, pragmatism tries to equip the individual with the most up-to-date scientific tricks so that he may meet the tendencies of the biological and social environment successfully while, at the same time introducing the necessary changes also therein. The realist does not reconcile with the puzzles of the free will, but for
the pragmatist they do not exist at all. He rejects them on the ground that they are pure fiction. Therefore, in the educational realm the pragmatist gives importance to the fact of actual experience alone. The pragmatist view of education rebels against idealism which rests upon a basis transcending actual experiences. The Absolute simply does not exist for the pragmatist. Therefore, the pragmatist turns away from the transcendental aspects of idealism. He wants to train the individual in such a way as not to proceed from disappointment, but from success to success and success of that kind which is meaningful to human beings in human situations. Thus according to pragmatism, the aim of education is to adjust the free, conscious, human being to the biological and social environment in a creative manner, because the individual is not only expected to adjust himself in the environment as it is, but he is also expected to improve upon it if his needs so demand.

PRAGMATISM AND THE CURRICULUM 

The pragmatist believes that problems tend to occur singly, one after another. Therefore he does not recognise the utility of systematic 'subjects', as the realist does. He does not like that a student should become specialist in a subject, but may know nothing about anything else. He may tolerate a systematic collection of books for the purpose of reference, but he would not like that the student should become a
book-worm. He wants to use a subject-matter for training a student in suitable techniques, techniques for directing and controlling coming events. The aim of studying books is to learn new techniques for applying to new problems. Thus the pragmatist is sceptical about objective information.
Objective information, if gathered, will be gathered only for the purpose of solving some problem. The realist wants to make the student a walking encyclopedia, whereas the purpose of the pragmatist is to give the student up-to-date scientific tricks for solving problems at hand. The above view indicates that the child should be given worthwhile experiences. Therefore the curriculum should include such
subjects which may give the necessary skills to the student.
Language, hygiene, history, geography, physical training, sciences, agricultural science for boys and domestic science for girls should comprise the curriculum. Needless to say that these subjects will be studied for their usefulness, and there will be no disinterested pursuit of knowledge. With regard to curriculum, pragmatism wants to follow the child's natural interests at the Thus in the curriculum it is
the child who is emphasised, and not the book, the subject, or the teacher. If rich experience is given to the child, he will get the best possible education. Pragmatism protests against the formality in instruction and considers learning as an active process rather than a passive acceptance of facts.

Dewey analyzes the interests of the child into four groups:
• "The interest in conversation or communication;
• In inquiry, or finding out things;
• In making things or construction; and
• In artistic expression."
 

To Dewey these are the natural resources, and it is on the exercise of these that the active growth of the child depends. The child must know the arts of reading, writing, and counting in order to follow out these interests. The child will master these arts not as ends, but as tools. Therefore, the elementary school curriculum should include reading, writing, counting, nature study, handwork and drawing. Hardwork and drawing will be then for construction and artistic expression—the other two natural interests of the child. Thus pragmatist curriculum is concerned with the realities of child nature and of life. The contents of the curriculum will be selected from different activities of real life. The activities of real life to be incorporated in the curriculum be free and purposive and they should be connected with the community of which the school is a part. The pragmatist thinks that if the activities are thus socialized, they will develop moral virtues and power of initiative, independence, and self-discipline. The pragmatist does not want to divide the curriculum into independent subjects as water-tight compartments. He believes in unity of knowledge and skill. Therefore, he wants to follow the principle of integrating in curriculum construction. Accordingly, the subjects should be presented as modes of purposive activities inter-connected by a
common bond. The pragmatist feels that physics and
chemistry bring the student to a systematic realm of
symbolic abstractions and they do not give him experience in concrete realities. He is of the opinion that sociology and psychology acquaint the student with human experience.
Therefore, these subjects should receive more emphasis in the curriculum than physics and chemistry which are very dear to a realist. However, it is noteworthy that the pragmatist is prepared to accept any subject in the curriculum provided it offers the teacher opportunities for training the pupil in the up-to-date scientific techniques for solving human problems at hand. As regards the curriculum, the contrast between the pragmatist and idealist is that of how the subject-matter is used. The idealist wants to use it for developing a transcendental self- consciousness on the part of the student; whereas the
pragmatist uses it for developing an empirical efficiency for solving here and now problems. From the idealist standpoint the pragmatist student passes through the subject without being adequately educated, he is a short-sighted success-seeker and untouched by spiritual consciousness and higher insights which his studies might have given him. Whereas, the pragmatist thinks that the idealist student is lost in a self-projected obscurity which deprives him of any worthwhile success in the world. Thus we may conclude that the realist would emphasize the importance of objective subjects falling in the field of natural science. The idealist would not consider one subject more important than the other, he would emphasise the quality of personal greatness found in a subject in abundance, and also the qualities of personality had by certain teachers.
The pragmatist will attach importance to social sciences, but not on objective side alone. His purpose is to acquire full mastery over the techniques for solving arising problems.

PRAGMATISM AND THE TEACHER

The pragmatist teacher is a pragmatist first, and a teacher afterwards. Pragmatist is primarily interested in the solution of problems as they arise in the biological and social environments. He is a "radical empiricist, essentially an experimentalist, a trial-and -error man" solving problems bit by bit as they arise and adapting himself to the arising situation. The pragmatist teacher adopts this same attitude in the classroom and tries to transmit this attitude to his students as well. The pragmatist teacher does not believe in teaching subjects systematically, for example, when he teaches chemistry, he does not care to follow a textbook systematically. In fact, he does not follow a textbook at all. Instead, he goes from one experiment to another in a disconnected manner. He treats each experiment as complete in itself suggesting further problems of technique and encouraging the pupils to perform further experiments. He suggests problems to the pupils and leads them to follow their solutions themselves. The pragmatist teacher teaches his pupil to do rather than to know things in a pedantic manner. In this respect, he follows the example of Socrates who "taught his pupils to think and act for themselves, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat".

PRAGMATISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

 
As in the field of curriculum construction, so in the field of methodology, Pragmatism has contributed greatly and in very important ways. This ideology does not uphold any outdated, lifeless and rigidly traditional method of teaching. Pragmatists believe that minds of different children are different. Hence a certain fixed method of teaching cannot be useful to all. For the purpose of developing children on sound lines, both the child and the teacher should together think and formulate the necessary and useful method of teaching which is related to the interests of the child and involves practical work, activities and productive experiences. With this purpose, Pragmatists have laid down the following principles according to which teaching methods may be devised and formulated:
Principle of Learning by Doing :  Pragmatism attaches more importance to activity and experience in preference to thoughts or ideas. According to this ideology education should be imparted through activities and practical experiences. Pragmatists firmly hold that activities give rise to new ideas and clarify conceptions. Hence, such purposive activities and conducive experiences should be structured for the child so that he develops necessary insight and capacities to solve the physical and social challenges which confront him from time to time. According to Ryburn, self- experience is our super most and real teacher as one remembers the lessons of his experiences throughout life.
Hence according to this principle, education should provide creative experiences and experimental activities to the child more and more so that he learns by his own efforts and experiences. It must be noted over here that Pagmatism does not merely insist upon practical activities, but tries to provide real life experiences and real life situations so that the child gains the required insight and capacities to face and solve the different problems and challenges of life successfully. 

Principle of Purposive Process of Learning :  This principle means that a child should try to achieve some aim or goal according to his natural interests, aptitudes, abilities and experiences. According to this principle, Pragmatism opposes bookish knowledge and condemns those methods of teaching which promote abject surrender to the teacher in order to obtain knowledge which may or may not be useful and relevant to the problems and challenges of modern life. Instead of passive reception of knowledge from others, Pragmatism emphasizes self-learning through
self-effort. According to this principle, methods of teaching should provide such conducive experiences and productive practical activities for the benefit of the child and endow him with capacities and powers to face boldly and successfully the problems and challenges of modern life.

Principle of Integration. This principle lays stress upon correlated teaching of all subjects. This is because knowledge is one whole and this principle seeks to maintain unity in diversity. This close relationship in different subjects should be brought about as much as possible. According to Pragmatism only that method is most effective, which brings about and employs this correlation and integration of all subjects, activities and experiences.

PROJECT METHOD

 
On the foundations of the above mentioned principles,
John Dewey's ardent disciple Kilpatrick formulated a solid and practical method of teaching, which goes by the name of "Project Method". Unlike the old methods of teaching, this method is an active and dynamic method. Through this method, the child learns by his own activities and experiences, the teacher only guiding and suggesting wherever and whenever there is any necessity for such help. The teacher's task is only to create such situations wherein each child is able to identify his problem. Once the problem is identified, each child is free to experiment and gain self experiences of his own planning. All children work
in groups in close cooperation to solve the problem aiding and coordinating their efforts and activities. When the problem is solved, children develop new insights and create new values for their gradual progress and development.

PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

 
The pragmatist regards discipline as an external force to check these courses of action which are distasteful or to encourage those that are pleasant. From the pragmatist standpoint, the teacher who depends upon rewards and punishments for getting works done by pupils is a very poor teacher. There is no place for a strict and rigid disciplinarian in a pragmatist school. A moralist, duty-for-duty-sake man, a holier than- thou practitioner will find no place in a pragmatist school. The activities of the school are to be so organized as to make them fit in with the needs of a pupil's nervous system, and also with his earnest desire to make him a fit citizen of the world around him. Under such circumstances, there will be no need of discipline of the realist kind. The pragmatist student overcomes his
difficulties joyfully and he does not need any reward for the same. If the activity is directed towards the student's self-expression, no appeal will be necessary to "sheer strength of will" not will the teacher be required to make things interesting to the child. Some authorities are of the opinion that "the student should work at his work and play at his play". But the pragmatist says that the work and play may naturally go together. Therefore, it is quite safe to expect a child "to play at his work and to work at his play". Dewey says, "Play is not to be identified with anything which the child externally does. It rather designates his mental attitude in its entirety and in its unity. It is the free play, the interplay, of all the child's powers, thoughts, and physical movements, in embodying, in a satisfying form, his own images and interests". If the work in the school are so arranged as to appeal to the natural interests of the student the problem of discipline will not exist at all.
Finally, I conclude that the realist believes in discipline, "in the cultivation of objectivity", and in "the submission of the self, to the forces of physical reality." The idealist discards external control as a method of discipline. He believes in the cultivation of a subjective power towards the development of a transcendental self free of all forces within and without. The pragmatist, too, rejects external control as a method of discipline—but for a different purpose. He does not recognise the value of transcendental self. To him the interest of the child is strictly empirical,
biological, and social. Hence to him the problem of discipline is meaningless.

PRAGMATISM AND SCHOOL

 
Pragmatists regard school as a social institution where the child gains real experiences of actual life which develop in him social sense and a sense of duty towards society and the nation. John Dewey maintains that school is a "Miniature Society" where a child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interests, aptitudes and capacities. Group games, working in laboratories and' studying in libraries with others are the various activities and experiences which inculcate in children social qualities, social attitudes together with a spirit of mutual help and
cooperative activities. In this way, according to Pragmatism the school is not a centre of education alone but it is also a community centre of various activities and experiences.
John Dewey rightly asserts—"School should be the true representative of society."

MERITS OF PRAGMATISM

 
Importance of Child. Opposing bookish knowledge and formal education, Pragmatism lays great stress upon the development of child's individuality by his own efforts. This makes education child-centred.

Emphasis on Activity. Instead of ideas, Pragmatism
emphasizes upon activity. Thus, the principle of "Learning by Doing" is the main contribution of Pragmatism. Faith in Applied Life. Pragmatism emphasizes the practical life of child. Thus, Pragmatic education prepares the child for future life in a very effective manner.
Infusion of New Life in Education. Pragmatism has
revolutionized the process of education to a very great
extent. This has infused a new life and zest in education. The concepts of "New Education", "Progressive Education" and "Activity centred curriculum" which have changed the face of education, are the contributions of Pragmatism.
Social and Democratic Education. Pragmatism infuses in a child a spirit of freedom initiative, equality and also a sense of responsibility in relation to rights and duties of a citizen. This develops in the child love for democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and development of personality.
Progressive and Optimistic Attitude. Pragmatic attitude is optimistic and progressive. In other words, Pragmatism emphasizes the qualities of freedom, initiative, expression, conducive experiences, congenial environment, purposeful creativity and development of human values for the welfare of whole mankind. 

Construction of Project Method. In the field of methods of teaching, Pragmatism has given birth to 'Project' method. Through this method, a child indulging in various creative activities, is able to solve many problems which cater to this natural progress and development.

DEMERITS OF PRAGMATISM

 
No Pre-determined Aims of Education. According to Pragmatism, there are no pre- determined aims of life. Hence, there are no set and pre-determined aims of education as well. In the absence of definite aims of
education, all educational plans and efforts may go astray and achieve nothing.
Opposition of Pre-determined Ideals and Values.
Pragmatism opposes pre-determined ideals and values. This ideology emphasizes that ideals and values are man-made and change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. But in fact, all noble things have entered into this human world by the efforts of those great persons who were inspired by the great ideals namely—Truth, Beauty and Goodness. These ideals are not man-made.
They are eternal and absolute and have been guiding the efforts of human beings to develop more and more since the dawn of human civilization.
Opposition to Eternal Truths. Pragmatism is opposed to predetermined truth. According to it, truth changes according to a change in circumstances, times and places and is created by the consequences of our actions and experiences. Pragmatists hold that if the results of an activity are satisfying, then it is true otherwise not. This view of Pragmatists regarding truth is not acceptable to Idealists. According to Idealism truth is truth. It does not and cannot change at all.
Opposition of Intellectuality. Pragmatists believe that a man's intelligence is subservient to his innate tendencies. This makes him only an animal. As .a matter of fact, it is the intelligence which reforms, moulds and sublimates the basic raw tendencies into human qualities. Intelligence is not the slave but the master of basic tendencies of the individual.
Negation of Spiritual Values. Pragmatists deny the
existence of spiritual values. They attach greater importance to material welfare of this world. Negligence of spiritual values is a great blunder. Without developing spiritual values achieving human welfare, peace and satisfaction is simply to cry for the moon.
Negation of Past. Pragmatism, emphasizing only the
present and future, neglects the past. As a matter of fact, the past is equally important as the present and future. The reason of this fact is that the root of present lies in the past. Without the knowledge of past one cannot understand the present and without knowing the present thoroughly nothing can be predicted for the future. 

Condemnation of Formal Education. Condemning formal education, Pragmatism advocates that all knowledge should be acquired through direct personal experiences. But knowledge is so vast and the span of life of short, that it is quite impossible to receive all knowledge through direct experiences. Hence, acquiring all knowledge needs personal experiences and formal education both.
Opposition of Monism. Like Idealism and Naturalism Pragmatism does not accept the truth of 'Monism'. According to this ideology, truths are many. Hence, Pragmatists believe in 'Pluralism' which is not proper. Difficulty in the Construction of Curriculum. Pragmatism mphasizes that all knowledge is to be gained from experiences of life. It is not an easy task. Selecting a project and construction of curriculum to gain all knowledge from life experiences is very difficult.
Pragmatism is a Method Only. Unlike other Philosophical Doctrines, Pragmatism does not lay down any aims, ideals and values of life to be pursued by human beings. Hence, Pragmatism cannot be termed as a philosophy of life.
William James has himself admitted this fact in his writings that Pragmatism is not a philosophy of life but only a method of education, growth and development. In the words of William James—"There is absolutely nothing new in the pragmatic method. It is just empirical attitude. It has no dogmas and no doctrines save its methods.

SUMMARY OF PRAGMATISM

Exponents (1) C.B.Pearce, (2) William James, (3) Schiller, (4) John Dewey, (5) Kilpatrick and others.

Fundamentals Principles (1) Pragmatism does not believe in God or spiritual values. It has full faith in man. 

(2) It uphold the power of man as supreme. 

(3) Spiritual principles are not universal. They change according to change in times, circumstances and situation. 

(4) Values are not predetermined. They are in the making. 

(5) Fully, psychological and humanistic viewpoint. 

(6) It is a pluralistic concept.

Principles of Education 

(1) Education is based on psychology and science. 

(2) It emphasizes experiment and practice. 

(3) Child is the focal point of all educational activities. (4) It opposes book learning. 

(5) Only sociability is emphasized.
(6) It is a progressive, dynamic and changeable ideology.

Aims of Education 

(1) Aims of educational are not predetermined. 

(2) Educational aims change according to times places and circumstances. 

(3) More education. 

(4) Creation of new values. 

(5) Social adjustment and harmonious development.

Curriculum 

(1) Pragmatic Curriculum is based on subjects of utility, its main principle being utilitarian. 

(2) Social subjects form the hygiene and science, Physical Culture, History, Geography, Maths, Home Science, Science and Agriculture etc.

Methods of Teaching 

Pragmatists have emphasised the principles of 

(1) Purposive processes of learning, 

(2) Learning by doing and by experience and 

(3) Correlation and integration. 

On the basis of these principles Kilpatrick has given birth to Project method, a method which is widely accepted and used in the field of education.

Teacher 

(1) Teacher's role is that of a friend, philosopher and guide.

 (2) Teacher puts the child in such a position so that he learns to create new values for future.

Discipline 

Pragmatism emphasizes admitted emancipator or social discipline.

School 

(1) According to Pragmatism, school is a laboratory
for experiments to be done by children. 

(2) It is a society in miniature

Prepared by

Sabarish P (MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 

Contact  

email: pklsabarish@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION-FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION-Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 09

Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 08

 FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION

Prepared by

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(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)

 

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INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

Philosophy of Pragmatism is mainly an American concept which came into prominence after 1850 but due to its impact on human life similar theories were developed by the philosophers of England and Germany. The word 'pragmatism' has been derived from the Greek word Pragmatikos' which means practicability or utility, thus the philosophy of pragmatism is founded on the principle that first the activity or experiment is done and then on the
basis of results, principles or ideas are derived. Therefore application of this philosophy in education aims at having an educational system which makes the individual perfect in practical life and hence it was widely accepted by the intellectuals without much hesitation. Here under an attempts is being made to highlight some vital details concerning pragmatism in brief: Pragmatism is philosophical movement that has come to prominence during the last hundred years, but has been called "a new name for an old way of thinking." It is a philosophy that strongly reflects some of the characteristics of American life. Pragmatism is connected with such names as Charles Peirce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John
Dewey (1859-1952). Pragmatism has also been called
instrumentalism and experimentalism. While it has had its main development in America, similar theories have been set forth in England by Arthur Balfour and F.C.S. Schiller, and in Germany by Hans Vaihinger. The Greeks discussed the question as to the relative values of the speculative and the practical lives, and Aristotle had not the slightest hesitation in awarding the superiority to the speculative life on the ground that the speculative activity is the only one that is prized for its own sake. The modern pragmatist inverts the Greek conclusion, and with as little hesitation as Aristotle contends that the true is the name of whatever proves itself to be good, that is, the truth or validity of a principle or belief depends upon its effect on practice; the pragmatist thus subordinates speculative to practical activity. The pragmatic attitude is modern and typically English or Anglo Saxon. The germ of the utilitarian or pragmatic spirit is to be traced to Bacon's introduction of the view that knowledge was to be sought for the glory of the creator and the relief of man's estate; his aim was to
establish a trustworthy system whereby nature might be interpreted and brought into the service of man.
Locke in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding adopts what is practically the pragmatic standpoint; in Book I, he affirms, "we shall not have much reason to complain of the narrowness of our minds, if we will but employ them about what may be of use to us," and in the Introduction, "our business is not to know all things, but those which concern our conduct." Eraser, commenting on this latter statement, remarks that this might be the motto of the Essay, and the watchword of English philosophy which characteristically seeks to keep in direct relation to life and conduct.

HISTORY OF PRAGMATISM

 The history of the term itself is given by Prof. James in his work entitled Pragmatism as follows: "The term is derived from the same Greek word pragma meaning action, from which our words 'practice' and 'practical' come. It was first introduced into philosophy by Mr. Charles Peirce in 1978. In an article entitled "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," In the Popular Science Monthly for January of that year, Mr. Peirce, after pointing out that our beliefs are really rules for action, said that, to develop a thought's meaning, we need only determine what conduct it is fitted to produce: that conduct is for us its sole significance, and the tangible fact at the root of all our thought-distinctions,
however subtle, is that there is no one of them so fine as to consist in anything but a possible difference of practice.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PRAGMATISM

 
Meaning of Pragmatism 

Etymologically the word Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word 'Pragma' which means activity or the work done. Some other scholars think that the word Pragmatism has been derived from the Greek word 'Pragmatikos' which means practicability or utility.
Thus, according to this ideology great importance is laid upon practicability and utility. Pragmatists firmly hold that first the activity or experiment is done and then on the basis of results, principle or ideas are derived. Hence, Pragmatism is also known as Experimentalism or consequentialism. It is called Experimentalism because Pragmatists believe experiment as the only criterion of Truth. To them Truth, Reality, Goodness or Badness are all relative terms. These concepts are not predetermined and
absolute. They are proved by man's own experiences.
Further, Pragmatists believe that truth are many and they are all in the making. Man researches these areas only by means of his own experiments and experiences. Hence, only those things are true which can be verified by experiments. Pragmatists also hold that whatever was true yesterday, need not be the same today. Under these circumstances, no definite and determined principle of current use can stop the world from moving forward on the path of progress.
Pragmatism is called consequentialism because any human activity is evaluated in terms of its consequences or results.
If the activity results in some utility, then it is true
otherwise not. It may be noted that the fundamental start of Pragmatism is 'Change'. In this sense no truth is absolute and permanent. It is always changing from time to time, from place to place and from circumstances to circumstances. Thus those ideas and values which are useful in one set of circumstances, times and places, need not prove to be the same in changed circumstances, places and times. Hence, Pragmatists, unlike the Idealists, do not believe in fixed, eternal and absolute values of life to be
followed in all times, places and circumstances. They also do not uphold any predetermined philosophy of life. To them, only those ideals and values are true which result in some utility to mankind in a certain set of circumstances, places and times. The above discussion clearly lays down that Pragmatism is very intimately connected with human life and human welfare. It is why, it is called a humanistic philosophy of life also. In a nutshell, one can say that where
Naturalism is neutrocentric, Idealism is psychocentric,
Pragmatism is anthropo- centric according to which, man's own experiences are the centres of reality and truth.
The chief propounders of Pragmatism are C.S. Pearce,
William James, Shiller and John Dewey. William James has called Pragmatism as a middle stage between Idealism and Naturalism. Idealism also emphasizes human development as Pragmatism does. The only difference between the two is that while idealism emphasizes the pursuit of pre-determined ideals and values for human growth.
Pragmatism stresses that ideals and values are not
predetermined and absolute, but they are in the making through a process of change. As such, each individual has to decide about his own ideals and values to pursue for his own development. Hence, like dynamic Idealism Pragmatism lays emphasis upon man made ideals and values which are the results of some human activities and experiments. It may further be noted that there are points of similarity between Pragmatism and Naturalism also.
Both emphasize the study of child and his nature and both hold the same view that creative powers and constructive propensities in a child are the gifts of his inherent nature.
Here ends the similarity between the two but both widely differ in their approach to human growth and
development. While Naturalism tries to develop the
individuality of a child in a company of Nature, far away from all human society, Pragmatism emphasizes to develop the child in and through human society. To conclude the discussion, we can say that Pragmatism and dynamic Idealism speak the same language about man-made ideals and values whereas Pragmatism and Naturalism hold similar views about the study of a child and his inherent nature. The truth is that both Pragmatism and Idealism will come very close to each other if the former becomes dynamic Idealism, the difference will be much lessened in their approach to life and the humanistic philosophy of life.

Definition of Pragmatism 

The following definitions of Pragmatism by various scholars are being given to make the meaning more clear:
(1) "Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of knowledge, and a theory of reality."—Gomes B. Prett
(2) "Pragmatism is essentially a humanistic philosophy,
maintaining that man creates his own values in the course of activity that reality is still in the making and awaits its part of completion from the future, that to an unascertainable extent our truth are man-made products." —J.S. Ross 

(3) "Pragmatism is a temper of mind, an attitude, it
is also a theory of the nature of ideas and truth, and finally it is a theory about reality." —William James 

Pragmatism is an attitude, a method and a philosophy that uses the practical consequences of ideas and beliefs as a standard for determining their value and truth. William James defined pragmatism as "the attitude looking away first things, principle, categories', supposed necessities, and of looking towards last things, fruits, consequences, facts."
Pragmatism places greater emphasis on method and
attitude than on systematic philosophical doctrine. It is the method of experimental inquiry extended into all realms of human experience. Pragmatism uses the modern scientific method as the basis of a philosophy. Its affinity is with the sciences, especially the biological and social sciences, and it aims to utilize the scientific spirit and scientific knowledge to deal with all human problems, including those of ethics and religion. The pragmatists are critical of the older
systems of philosophy, such as the various forms of
materialism, idealism, and realism. They say that
philosophy in the past has made the mistake of looking for ultimate, absolutes, eternal essences, substances, fixed principles, and metaphysical "block systems." The pragmatists emphasize empirical science and the changing world and its problems, and nature as the all- inclusive reality beyond which we cannot go. For John Dewey, experience is central. Experience is the result of the interaction of the organism and its environment. While pragmatism as systematic philosophy is comparatively recent, similar attitudes and ideas can be found in the works of a number of earlier thinkers. The word pragmatism was used by Kant to describe rules and standards based on experience as distinct from those he thought were above are beyond experience. He appealed to our moral nature, especially man's sense of duty, and to
the will to establish the truth of certain beliefs, such as those in freedom, God, and immortality. His principle of the "primacy of practical reason" anticipated pragmatism to some extent.

PRAGMATISM IN PHILOSOPHY 

Dewey, James, Pearce and Schiller may be regarded as the four chief exponents of pragmatism in philosophy. I do not propose here to enter into the academic details of pragmatism. I only try to give below the essence of pragmatism. For the sake of clarification, I compare it also with idealism and realism. Pragmatism is a midway between naturalism and idealism. It criticises the impersonal interpretation of existence as forwarded by naturalism, and rebels against the academic and orthodox absolutism of idealism.
Pragmatism holds that whatever fulfils one's purposes and develops his life is true. Only those theories are true which work in practical situations. There are no absolute ideas. All ideas are relative to the situations in which they arise and they are subject to continuous verification by consequences. Experiences are of various nature and they are always changing. So no final, eternal valid system of ideas or values can be fixed up. There are no ideas or values which are true for all the times. Man has to create his own values. If there are any truths, they are man-made products. They are not divine, and they are not eternal. Pragmatism may be viewed in three forms: humanistic, experimental and biological. To humanistic pragmatism that which fulfils man's purpose is true. Experimental pragmatism regards that as true which can be experimentally verified, in other words, "Whatever works," is true. Biological pragmatism has great faith in man's capacity shaping his own destiny in the environment. It believes that man, by nature, is potentially strong to make a better environment for himself. This is the kind of pragmatism which is more dominant and expressive in modern times. It is also called instrumentalism, because it emphasises thought as an instrument for enabling the human organism to adapt itself to the environment.
Pragmatism thinks that man is essentially a biological and social organism which reacts to biological and social stimulation alone. It believes that life is not abstract and it is never systematic. The Pragmatist regards the sciences of psychology and sociology as more akin to the concrete nature of man's experience than mathematical physics.
Therefore, he calls himself a concrete realist. It is not
surprising then that he is more interested with the problem of the moment and with the immediate future. He thinks that past is past, tomorrow is another day with its own problems amid methods of solution of the same. Evidently today we cannot be certain about the methods of solving problems which may arise in future. Therefore, our attention should be more on the present than on anything else. Idealism has more faith in past and it builds a transcendental ideal beyond human realisation.
Pragmatism revolts against this attitude and holds that which transcends the actualities of human experience is false.Mark the words of Dewey, "Professed idealism turns out to be a narrow pragmatism... The time have arrived for a pragmatism which shall be empirically idealistic, proclaiming the essential connection of intelligence with the unachieved future." Apparently, the pragmatist thus regards himself an empirical idealist, and thinks that his view is in essence more truly idealistic than the daydreams of transcendentalism. Pragmatism rejects
the older beliefs in Truth and Reality considering them as mischievous. It believes that man, a biological organism being in constant interaction with biological and social environments, acts rather than contemplates, produces results rather than sits, thinks and understands. The Self. To the realist 'self is a purely physical affair. To him the "self is a developed system, of which the cerebral structure is the dominating feature... Its reality is the sort of reality we call feeling or sentience." The idealist regards this point of view as a pitiable thing. To him the Self is the ideal source from which we draw all creative power which manifests itself in all the work of the world. Whereas to the pragmatist the Self is a kind of fact. It is not a thing, but a function. The Self is a behaviour symbol— an outcome of a social situation, its permanence or impermanence depends upon the social situation. 

Mind :  According to realism reality is physical. Therefore, mind consists in the demonstrable physical
changes. Mind and matter consists of the same stuff. Mind is like life. It emerges when many factors—organic and inorganic are present. The idealist does not agree with the realist view of mind. He regards mind as the central core of everything. Mind is not dependent upon a physically objective world for thinking out or discovering anything.
Mind can make itself its own object; and it can discover its own laws. The physical world exists in so far it responds to the demands of mind. Idealism holds that mind is competent to answer any question that it can raise. The vitality and potentiality of the growth of mind has scarcely been tapped. Mind can respond to any call that we can make upon it. Thus according to idealism mind is all powerful. Quite contrary to the above two standpoints, pragmatism believes that 'Mind' is that form of behaviour, especially of the social type, which has a purpose and direction. The pragmatist insist on mind being behaviour, activity, interactivity with a biological and social environment. Evidently, like the idealist, he does not think that mind is permanent or eternal. To him mind must change with the elements which cause change. Thus mind is
not a substance or matter, as the realist thinks. Mind is only a function. Knowledge. We have seen that realism bases scientific knowledge upon sensory observation, and upon experiments which can be verified by our senses. Thus realism admits no possibility of doubts. The realist knows, he knows that he knows, and he knows what he knows. The realist does not like to call a theory of knowledge, because it is a simple statement of obvious fact. To the idealist, it is not the sensations which are the chief source of knowledge. He regards the mind as the starting point, and an originator of all knowledge. We have already referred to above that mind has its own laws. It can select, analyse, synthesize and unify all its experiences in systematic ways. To the idealist the reality is spiritual, and to understand this is to have knowledge. Pragmatism disregards both the above standpoints of knowledge. It regards 'system' of knowledge with suspicion. It does not believe in sensations as originators of knowledge. The pragmatist is always conscious of the true business of living beings. He is more concerned with the 'successful' action in a world of biological and social concrete situations. So knowledge must come out as a result of experience.

FORMS OF PRAGMATISM 

There are three forms of Pragmatism as under:
 

Humanistic Pragmatism. 

According to this ideology, only those things or principles are true which satisfy the needs, requirements, aspirations and objectives of human beings and cater to the welfare of mankind. In other words, that which satisfies the human nature is only true and real. Humanistic Pragmatists believe "Whatever fulfils my purpose, satisfies my desire develops my life, is true."

Biological Pragmatism. 

According to Biological Pragmatism, that power or capacity of a human being is valuable and important which enables him to adjust with the environment or which makes him able to change his environment according to his needs and requirements. The chief protagonist of this ideology was John Dewey of America who proclaimed. "By this type of Pragmatism test is found in the function of thought, in adapting the human organism to environment."

Experimental Pragmatism. 

According to his ideology, that thing or principle is true which can be verified as true by experiment. Hence, according to Experimental Pragmatists, "Whatever can be experimentally verified is true or what works is true." The above thinking regards thought as a means to solve any problematic situation to achieve adjustment and harmony. Hence, it is sometimes named as Instrumentalism. John Dewey propounded this theory while working at Chicago University. Hence, this ideology is also called as "Chicago School of Thought."

PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM

 
Problems as the Motives of Truth : According to Pragmatism, human life is like a laboratory wherein each individual undertakes various experiments to solve the problems which confront him in course of his growth and development. The success of the experiment is a search of truth. Hence, problems are the motivating force for the search of truth.
Truth is Formed by its Result. According to Pragmatists, truth is not a fixed and definite entity. According to them truth is a relative term which changes according to the stages of development and situations which confront a person in his process of growth and progress. The chief reason of this is that change in situations thrown up new problems to be solved by new thoughts and new efforts.
Out of these thoughts only that thought of the whole lot is true which serves to solve the problems and attain the desired result. Hence, Pragmatists firmly hold that it is the result which goes to form or build a truth. In other words, truth is not absolute or predetermined for all times to come. According to this ideology only those things are true for us which develop our personality to the full and which conduce to individual good and welfare of others as well.

Changing Nature of Truth : Pragmatists do not believe in predetermined truth. According to them truth always changes according to time, place and situation. They also believed that a thing which is true to an individual at a specific time, place and situation, need not be true to others or to any one else at some other place or time. Hence, a certain thing which was true to a person yesterday, need not be the same for him today or will remain the same for tomorrow. In short, according to Pragmatism, truth is always changing according to times, places and situations. Pointing out towards this fact William James writes—"The truth of an idea is not a stagnant property inherent in it. Truth happens to an idea." Emphasis on the Principle of Utility. Pragmatism is a
utilitarian ideology which holds that the reality of a
principle lies in its utility. Any idea or thing which is useful to us, is proper and right. In case it is of no use, it is improper, wrong and untrue. In other words, only those ideas and things are true which have a utility for man. In the words of William James —"It is true because it is useful."

Emphasis on Social and Democratic Values :  Pragmatism holds that man is a social being. He is born in society and all his development takes place in and through society. Hence, pragmatists uphold social and democratic attitudes and values.

Opposition to Fixed Ideals and Values : According to Pragmatism, ideals and values of life are not predetermined and fixed. Pragmatists firmly hold that values and ideals of life are man-made and they change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. As such, human life is a laboratory wherein each individual indulges in ever new experiments and experiences according to his mental
capacity to explore, investigate and search out relevant ideals and values. Except this mental capacity, there is no other force in this creation which reflects the divine power of God's will. To the Pragmatists God is not infinite, absolute and immoral entity as the Idealists proclaim. To them, God and Soul are not immortal and infinite. These entities as well as the religion are useful to human beings only when they serve usefully to develop human personalities, otherwise pragmatism shows an indifference towards moral and spiritual ideals and values.

Importance of Activity : Pragmatism lays great emphasis on activity rather than on ideas. Pragmatists hold the view that ideas are born out of activities. Man is an active being. He learns by his activities which he is always engaged in on his long path of life. Thus, the greatest contribution of Pragmatism to education is this principle of learning by doing.

Importance of Manpower : Pragmatism attaches great importance to the power of man. By virtue of this power, a man can create an environment useful, beneficial and conducive to his own development and welfare of society.

Faith in Present and Future : Pragmatism does not stick to the past. According to this ideology each individual has to solve the problems of his present and future life. Hence, the present and the immediate future are to great value to an individual. The past is dead and gone, says Pragmatism. Thus, it is of no use to think and talk about what is dead and gone.

Opposition to Social Customs and Traditions :  Pragmatism is deadly against to old customs, traditions, restrictions and taboos. It believes in the realities of life. Hence, it does not concern itself with things which confuse and often mislead human intelligence. It gives great importance to human intelligence and mental capacity which brings about harmonious and progressive adjustment with environment which results in human welfare and happiness.

Reality Still in the Making : To Pragmatists future is more helpful and bright in comparison with the present. Hence, to call the present world as fully made up, absolutely beautiful and complete is wrong. The world is still the process of formation and development. Man is to aid this process of formation to such an extent that all the needs and requirements of human beings are fully satisfied. In this sense Pragmatic attitude is optimistic, progressive and developing. According to William James—"For Naturalism, reality is ready-made and complete from all entirety, while for Pragmatism it is still in the making and awaits its part of completion from the future."
Faith in Pluralism :  About the absolute supreme reality there are three views and beliefs. First is Monoism. Second is Dualism and the third is Pluralism. Pragmatism upholds the third, Pluralism. According to it, experience is the test of truth. Those ideals or values which are testified by experiences are true and real. As such, pragmatic truths are many. Man's experiences will prove the validity of an idea
or thing to be real and true. According to Rusk— "Naturalism reduce everything to life, idealism to mind or spirit. Pragmatism sees no necessity for seeking one fundamental principle of explanation. It is quite content to admit several principles and accordingly pluralistic."

Faith in Flexibility :  Pragmatism firmly believes that nothing is fixed and final in this world. Everything grows, changes and develops. In other words, the world is changing and everything is under a process of change. Human life is also changing. A human being encounters various problems in his life. To find solutions to these problems, he employs all his mental faculties, learns from all his experiments and experiences, uses all his resources of new ideas and
experiences to forge ahead on the path of progress and development.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRAGMATIC EDUCATION The following are the main characteristics of Pragmatic education:
Education as Growth. According to Pragmatism society is undergoing a process of continual change. Education should also correspond its activities and organisation to suit the change in society. Then only education will be a useful process to bring about the growth and development of individual as well as of society of which he is an integral part. It may be noted that the process of social growth today is very rapid in comparison with the conditions about sixty years ago. Thus, nobody can make any definite prediction now about the future conditions and situations of society. Hence, educating a child according to age old traditions, beliefs and methods is sheer waste of time and energy. In the scientific age of today, nobody can say that the son of a farmer will become a farmer and the son of a doctor or engineer will also become a doctor or engineer. This prediction could be made about sixty years ago, but such predictions are quite meaningless today. The truth is that education is meant for the child and not the child for education. Pragmatists condemn the belief that a child's mind is "an empty bottle to be filled by outside knowledge." According to them each child is born with inherent tendencies, aptitudes and capacities which are drawn out and developed by education. Pragmatic education develops the inherent capacities of the child according to his interests, inclinations and aptitudes in such a way that by his own efforts he creates his own values which equip him to face all eventual problems of life which he encounters at various times and under various situations. In this way, according to Pragmatism, education to be real and true, must develop all the inherent capacities of the child to the fullest extent.
Education as Life :  Pragmatists firmly believe that old and traditional education is dead and lifeless. It provides to the child cooked up knowledge which dulls his spirit of investigation and makes him a passive recipient without any dynamism and push. Real knowledge can be gained only by activity, experiments and real life experiences. Thus, to develop the child fully it is greatly essential to provide him opportunities to participate in more and more activities and experiments so that he creates his own values and leads a better, richer and happier life.

Education as Continuous Reconstruction of Experiences.

Pragmatism holds that education is development and not mere bookish knowledge. Pragmatists firmly believe that knowledge is not fixed and predetermined. It changes according to times and circumstances. Thus, pragmatists condemn knowledge for the sake of knowledge or forcing it into the mind of child. They emphasize that real knowledge is gained by experiments and experiences conducted by the
child himself. One experience leads to another and then to many others. Thus, the area of knowledge is widened gradually by the child himself. These experiences transform the behaviour patterns of the child which in turn structure other experiences. Thus, the process of reconstruction of experiences goes on continually which leads to adjustment and development of personality. In this way, according to
John Dewey—"It is a process of reconstruction of
reinstitution of experiences."

Education as a Responsibility of State :  The modern age is an age of democracy. In this age education is the birth right of each individual. Hence, the State should shoulder the whole responsibility regarding the education of the child. If the State does not discharge this obligation efficiently, the whole nation will suffer and lag behind on the road of success. Hence, Pragmatism insists that the State should shoulder the responsibility regarding the education of each child to the full to make the child capable and confident to meet the problems and challenges of life successfully.
 

Education as a Social Process :  To Pragmatism, man is a social being. He is integrally related to all human beings as to his family and kinsmen. He gains more and more knowledge through personal experiences than he gets from books. Thus, according to Pragmatism, the education of the child should be through the medium of society so that it develops in him socially desirable qualities which promote
his welfare and happiness. John Dewey rightly speaks out— "Education is the social continuity of life."

Prepared by

Sabarish P (MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 

Contact  

email: pklsabarish@gmail.com