Anthropological
Foundations of Education
(Full module in one post)
Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com
Anthropology
was derived from the Greek word anthrope
meaning man and logy
meaning science. The literal meaning of anthropology then is science
of man. It is the study of mankind. The dictionary defines
anthropology as the science that treats of the origin, development
(physical, intellectual, moral, etc.) and specially the cultural
development, customs, beliefs, etc. of man. Briefly, Herskovitz
defines anthropology as “the science of man and his works.”
According to Jacobs and Stern, anthropology is the scientific study
of the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of
human beings since their appearance on earth.
Actually,
anthropology studies man as a member of the animal kingdom and
studies his behavior as a member of society. Man is unique in the
animal kingdom because (1) he walks erect, (2) he uses his hands for
handling, and (3) he has a more complex brain. (4) He is also unique
in the field of behavior for the following reasons:
He
possesses tools and other material artifacts.
He
has complex techniques for getting and preparing food.
He
has social and political organization.
He
has a system of religious beliefs and rituals.
He
communicates by means of language.
Divisions
of Anthropology
Anthropology
may be classified as physical and cultural. Physical anthropology
deals with the study of man as a product of the evolutionary process.
It is connected with man’s bodily structures. It studies and
analyzes human population. Cultural anthropology deals with man’s
behavior and with ways human beings carry out the activities of daily
living. The diversity of human behavior is seen in: food habits, ways
food is cooked, habits of dress and ornaments and relations with
in-laws. Cultural anthropology has the following sub-divisions:
Archaeology
which deals with ancient cultures and past phases of modern
civilization based on documents, paintings, stone carvings, etc. It
is the study of antiquity by the excavation and description of
remains. Through diggings and fossils remains, the age of man has
been established. In 1654, according to Archbishop Ussher of
Ireland, the first man as well as the universe, was created 4004
B.C. Archaeology has also established different eras or periods of
the earth when living things appeared, more than 1,500 million years
ago. In geology, these eras are: (1) the Archezoic when primitive
forms of life appeared, (2) the Protozoic when early life forms
increased, and (3) Paleozoic when fish, amphibians, and other marine
forms appeared, and (4) the Mesozoic when huge reptiles
predominated. This was also called the Age of Reptiles. (5) The
Cenozoic era followed in which there were more advanced forms of
animals.
The
Cenozoic era is divided into two periods: (1) the Tertiary or Age of
Mammals and the Quartenary, or age when modern forms of man first
appeared. The Quartenary is divided into (1) Pleistocene (Ice Age)
period when man first appeared and culture began and (2) Holocene
period. Discovery of stone tools, implements and houses has held to
the period known as Stone Age.
Ethnology
treats of and describes diverse cultures and explains similarities
and differences. It deals with the sub-divisions of mankind, their
origins, relations, speech, institutions, etc. Mankind is divided
into five races – white, black, yellow, red and brown. Within each
race, there are subdivisions. For example the Americans, German,
French, Spanish, Scandinavians, etc. all belong to the white race,
but they have their own culture and physical characteristics, and
they have different levels of civilization. As to the origin of man,
there are several versions. There are also many different places
where the bones of pre-historic man were found.
Linguistics,
which is concerned with man’s language, non-literate or literate,
past and present. It takes up interrelation between language of a
people and other aspects of culture. As a science, it includes
phonetics, phonemics, morphology, and syntax. The sub-divisions are
descriptive linguistics and comparative or historical linguistics.
It is obvious that every country has its language and dialects, for
all people whether civilized or not, have a means of communication.
This means of communication is language, which differentiates man
from animals. There are several characteristics of language,
however, that may change, improve, add, subtract, or enrich its
meaning, such as intonation and emphasis or stress. The study of
language is called linguistics who has two sub-divisions as stated
above.
Descriptive
linguistics deals with the classification, arrangement and study of
the features language which will be taken up later. Comparative or
historical linguistics takes up the changes in language, the
borrowings from other languages, and the comparison of languages.
The
diagram may make the sub-divisions of anthropology clearer.
Relation
of Anthropology to Other Sciences
Physical
Anthropology is related to the biological sciences - anatomy,
physiology, embryology and genetics. Social Anthropology is related
to sociology, psychology, geography, and economics and political
science. Cultural anthropology is related to humanistic disciplines
such as history, literature, arts and music.
Practical
Applications of anthropology
The
questions may will be asked. Of what use is anthropology?
Anthropology has practical uses. Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism
by instilling appreciation of other cultures through study of other
societies and cultures, it contributes to education. It suggest the
potential and general value of anthropology in inspiring government
action. Research on all aspects of culture is undertaken by
anthropologists. Through anthropological studies, programs of aid in
the military, economic, and political fields are assessed and
evaluated. Not only is there evaluation, but also inspiration of
economic development and technical assistant programs. Through what
is termed “Participant interference,” anthropology acts catalyzer
and instigates action.
REFERENCES:
Ballen,
Jerome B. “Physical Anthropology and its Place ion General
Education.” Anthropology: Range and Relevance, Zamora, Mario and
Salazar, Zews A. Quezon City: Kayumanggi Publishers, 1969, pp.
195-206.
Beals,
Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry. An Introduction to Anthropolgy , 3rd
ed. New York: The MacMillian Co., 1965, Chapter 1.
Jacobs,
Melville, and Stern, Bernhard J., General Anthropology, N.Y. Barnes
and Noble, Inc., 1952, Chapter 1.
Kottak,
Conrad Philip. Anthropology, New York: Random House, 1974, Chapter 1.
Pi-Sunyer,
Oriol and Salzmann, Zdeneck. Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houhgton
Mifflin Co.,1978. Chapter 1.
Zamora,
Mario D. and Lawless, Robert, An Introduction to Anthropology for
Non-Anthropologists, ed. Zamora and Lawless, Quezon City: College of
Arts and Sciences, UP., 1966-67.
CULTURE
AND SOCIETY
How
are culture and society related? What are the kinds, forms, and
components of culture?
Meaning
of Culture
Different
meanings come to mind with the word culture. A person who is refined
in manners and speech is said to be a “cultured” individual. A
descendant of a line of “ladies” and “gentlemen” or of
nobility who has wealth and do not need to work is “cultured.”
One who observes the rules of etiquette is “cultured”. Knowledge
about a wide range of subjects is designated as “culture.”
“Culture” also means esthetic interest and sophisticated
understanding of arts and humanities. High level of perfection in
art, science, etc. is also deemed “culture”.
Sociologically,
culture has a different meaning from those given above. According to
Dressler, “culture is a social heritage, transmitted from one
generation to another and shared. It consists of the sum total of
skill, beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by
a number of people and transmitted to their children.” Through
culture, therefore, people learn to communicate with each other and
to think and behave in certain ways approved by the group. According
to Smith, Stanley, and Shores, “culture is the fabric of ideas,
beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, methods of thinking,
customs, and institutions into which each member of society is born.
Culture is that part of the environment which man himself has made.”
Bertrand defines culture as “the complex whole which includes
knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, law, costumes, and other
capabilities gained by man as a member of society.” Other
definitions of culture are:
Clyde
Kluckhon – Historically created designs for living, explicit and
implicit, rational, irrational, and non-rational, which exist at any
given time as potential guides for behavior.
American
College Dictionary – Particular stage or state of civilization of
a nation or period, such as Greek culture, sum total ways of living
built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from generation
to generation.
Way
people have learned to live together; behavior learned as a result
of living in groups which tend to be patterned and to be transmitted
from generation to generation.
Ragan
– the environment man has made consisting of artifacts, ideas,
language, attitudes, beliefs, customs, etc. existing at a particular
time and place.
Classification
of Culture
Culture
may be classified as static or dynamic. It is static when it
emphasizes cultural transmission; i.e., the same culture is passed on
from generation to generation. It is dynamic when it emphasizes
change; i.e., it goes thru revision with each generation.
Culture
may also be classified as stable or unstable. The culture is stable
where folkways and mores are satisfying New elements and traits are
incorporated smoothly and without conflict. In a stable culture, the
more educated the individual, the more conservative he becomes. Where
the group does not have satisfying solutions to most of its problems
and conflicts, the culture is usually unstable. Conflict exists
between the traditional and radical groups and their values. The more
educated the individual, the more he sees the inadequacy of the
culture. In unstable culture the school should pay attention to
developing worthwhile values and provide for change.
How
would you classify our culture?
Forms
of Culture
Culture
may be material or non-material. Material culture consists of
tangible things houses, clothing, tools, utensils, automobiles, TV,
etc. Non-material culture refers to what is symbolic or intangible
such as sentiments, folkways, mores, systems, and beliefs and
knowledge. What form of Philippine culture is becoming more prevalent
among the youth in the Philippines today?
Examples
of non-material culture follow:
Folkways
are traditional ways of doing things in a certain culture. An example
of a folkway in the Philippines is pamanhikan where the parents of
the boy ask for the girl’s hand in marriage. Mores are heavily
sanctioned folkways for group survival and are accepted without
question as they embody moral views of the group. An Igorot folkway
is for a boy to sleep in the ulog with the girl he is courting. If
she becomes pregnant and he does not marry her, he is ostracized by
the whole group, according to the mores of the tribe.
Costum
means habitual practice. It is a custom in the Philippines to invite
a guest to partake of a meal if he happens to b in the house at meal
time. Another custom is for children to kiss the hand of their
grandparents. Beliefs are also part of non-material culture. In
India, some walk on live coals or lie a bed of nails and come out
unscathed according to their belief. In Pampanga, every Good Friday,
a man himself nailed to the Cross in the belief that no harm would
come to him and nothing does.
COMPONENTS
OF CULTURE
Culture
is made of material or non-material triats. A combination of related
traits form a culture complex, such as a football complex which is
made up of football and the rules of the game. A culture complex has
traits patterned around another important trait. Examples are the
horse and buggy complex, automobile complex, television complex, and
superiority complex. In a superiority complex, the central traits to
which others are related is the thought that over-confidence,
condescencion toward all others, self-pride, boastfulness,
over-bearing manner, swaggering attitude, affectation in manner,
etc. A culture pattern is a combination of culture complexes, as for
instance, a sports pattern made up of football, basketball, and track
cultures. “Pattern” refers to a specific way of behaving that is
part of a given culture. For example, the way of greeting:
Americans
– shake hands
Latin
Americans – embrace
Eskimos
– touch noses
Thai
– put hands together and bow
Japanese
– bow deeply
Filipino
young or old – kiss hands
Functions
of Culture
Culture
is important and useful in many ways. Through culture, communication
is possible by means of an language that is learned. People belonging
to the same culture can anticipate how others may respond to their
actions. The culture provides standards for differentiating right and
wrong, beautiful and ugly, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous,
reasonable and unreasonable. Among Christians, pre-marital sex is
considered immoral, but not among the Igorots. To the Moslems, it is
all right to have more than one wife, but not to the Christians. A
tattooed body is considered beautiful by some African tribes, but it
is ugly in the eyes of others. Children are trained to behave in ways
approved by the group. Every culture provides the knowledge and
skills needed for its survival. Through their culture, people
identify with others and feel a sense of belonging.
Characteristics
of Culture
What
are the characteristics of a culture?
They
are:
Only
human society possess culture.
Human
cultures vary considerably although they resemble each other in some
respects.
Culture
tends to persist, once learned and accepted.
Culture
changes gradually and continuously.
Culture
exists in the minds of men who learned it from previous generations
and who use it to guide their conduct with others.
There
is a tendency to borrow from other cultures.
Members
of a culture may behave differently as in the case of those who
belong to sub-cultures.
Ex.
Ilokanos may behave differently from the Visayans although they are
both Filipinos.
No
person can escape entirely from his culture.
Another
authority gives the following set of characteristics:
Culture
is concerned with actions, ideas, and artifacts which individual
learn, share and value.
Others
call this organized group behavior an institution.
Ex.
English taking afternoon tea.
“Misa
de gallo” (dawn masses) before Christmas
Culture
may be regarded as a historical phenomenon, originating through
innovation and spread by diffusion.
Ex.
Association of candles with religion.
Carrying
candles during processions.
Culture
may be regarded as a regional phenomenon
Ex.
drinking coffee; smoking which originated with American Indians an
spread throughout the world.
Culture
tends to be patterned – repetition of similar approved behavior so
that it has a form or structure. Specific way of behaving in a
certain culture.
Ex.
making the sign of the cross when passing a church
Cultural
elements have a function.
Ex.
social status enhanced by owning a car
Culture
tends to be integrated – unity of premises, values, goals.
Ex.
meaning of fiesta or patron saint
Culture
is subject to change.
Individual
conduct varies, innovations occur, etc.
Ex.
change in form and function of candles.
Culture
is valid to the extent that the local way of life is well-defined,
homogenous, stable.
Yet
variations may occur, such as sub-cultures. Certain wedding practices
may exist only in certain regions. In Lucban, Quezon, after the
wedding, there is a dance where bride and groom take partners who pin
money on them. This is repeated with several partners until quite a
sum is accumulated.
Culture
is sometimes designated as a system where interrelated elements are
treated as a whole.
Ex.
American culture has specific cultural systems which may be termed
sub-cultures.
Culture
is a “continuum” – passed on from individual to individual,
from generation to generation.
Culture
is “symbolic” – meanings attached to artifacts and personal
motivations.
Ex.
We have to know the meaning of certain wedding ceremonies or they
would seem foolish to us. What is the meaning of pinning the veil and
cord around the bride and groom?
Concept
of Society
Culture
is created by society which approves its system of values. It also
includes a system of intermediate values that implements the ultimate
values. Society, however, does not mean just the total sum of its
people. To survive, society needs to perform certain basic needs, suh
as law and order, transporation, agriculture, and industrial systems.
Meaning
of Society
What
constitute a society? To Keesing, it is an organized group or
population. To Linton, it is human beings and institutions by which
they live together in their culture. According to Dressler, “a
society consists of all the people who share a distinct and
continuous way of life. (that is, a culture) and think of themselves
as one united people.” Bertrand defines society as “a social
group that occupies territory, recruit its members by intergroup
sexual reproduction, has a shared comprehensive culture.” To Smith,
Stanley, and Shores, a society is a group of organized individuals
who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have something in
common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, an esprit de corps which
makes the individual under certain circumstances to sacrifice himself
for the good of the group.”
From
the above definitions, it follows that a group of people does not
constitute a society unless it has the characteristics mentioned
above.
How
are society and culture related?
Relation
Between Culture and Society
There
can be no culture without society and there can be no society without
culture. Both society and culture have common elements, but the two
are not identical. Society is composed of people; culture consists of
things people have learned to do, to behave, and to enjoy.
Personality
and Characteristics in Relation to Culture
Each
individual is unique. heredity and environment (education, training,
etc.) give him/his individuality. He is not a passive recipient of
culture; he is active, creative, and reacts actively to his culture;
he may add innovations to culture.
Development
of his personality is influenced by his capacity to learn, need to
interact with others, ability to select, to create, to make
individual decisions in relation to cultural and social milieu.
Character is sometimes used interchangeably with personality.
Character, however, refers more to moral qualities or ethical
standards. Character influences behavior. Behavior of individuals
influences the culture and culture influences individuals.
Socialization is becoming a member of society – assumption of place
within a social system.
Educational
Implications
Cultures
differ and one should not judge another culture by using his own
culture as basis.
To
avoid prejudices, there should be more contact between cultures.
Travel,
education, and reading about other societies are ways of bringing
about tolerance and understanding between nations.
With
more diffusion between cultures, one global society may result.
With
the U.S as the best example of people getting along in spite of
different sub-cultures, perhaps a one world concept may be brought
about some day. Unity in spite of diversity.
Society
can be improve by improving the culture.
Since
culture is made by man himself, he should develop worthwhile values
and weed out those beliefs, mores, superstitions, etc. that are
detrimental to progress.
Since
culture is learned, the school should inculcate in the young, good
aspects of the culture.
Since
culture changes, the change should be for the better and society
should decide what those changes should be.
The
home, the school and the church should guard against borrowing from
other cultures things that are against the Philippine way of life.
Can
you name what is good in Philippine culture and what is not?
LANGUAGE
AND WRITING
Why
is language important? What is the function of writing?
A
man’s language is a reflection of the kind person he is, the family
he comes from, the level of education he has attained, and an index
to the behavior that may be expected from him. What is language?
Definition
of Language
According
to Keesing, language is “a vocal symbolism of speech, with its
related bodily gestures and mechanical signals which give precision
and finesse to communication.”
Beals
and Hoijer define language as “a way of speaking, distinct in every
culture.”
To
Herskovitz, language is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by
which members of social group cooperate and interact by which the
learning process is effectuated and a given of way of life achieved
both through continuity and change.”
Antiquity
of Language
Just
exactly when language began is not known, but it must be very old. It
probably is as old man’s artifacts and perhaps began with culture
as language is part of culture. All human societies, primitive or
civilized have languages. Today, there are numerous, different
languages. The universality and diversity of language prove that it
is very old, for language develops slowly. Similarities in vocabulary
and grammar show a common origin. The differences in the modern
languages must have taken a long time to develop.
Language
grows and changes. For example, take the original Latin that was
spoken in Rome. This spread to other countries where changes took
place independently. Out of Latin evolved the Romance languages –
Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and Romanian.
Linguistics
is an important subdivision of anthropology. The anthropologist first
studies the language of a group whose culture he wants to know.
Language is needed to understand a society and its people and the
role of language in their lives.
Significance
and Function of Language
Language
is very important. Without language, knowledge could have been
maintained and accumulated. man has able to devise, continue, and
change a great variety of cultural institutions of material and
non-material nature through language. Language is a form of learned
behavior by which people communicate with each other; this function
is probably one of the most important, if not the most important
function of language. According to Herskovitz, language is a vehicle
of culture by which the culture is passed on from one generation to
generation. Language is a means of cooperation through which people
learn to play together and to work together. Problems are solved, not
through physical activities alone, but through thought and
discussion; and therefore problem solving becomes continuous through
language, according to Shapiro. He also states that language enables
man to share the experiences and thoughts of others and to pass on
knowledge to succeeding generations.
From
the anthropological point of view, language is a way of making people
close to one another, of fostering the feeling of belongingness.
There are as many words as there are languages. Therefore, to cement
people of the world together, they should speak one language. All
nations of the earth should learn one language and English seems to
be it. Many countries studies English as a second language.
Elements
of Language
According
to Herskovitz, every language has three parts which are:
Phonemic
system consisting of sounds
Combination
of sounds into units that have distinct significance – vocabulary
Combination
and recombination of number 2 into large units - grammar
According
to Kessing, the parts of language are:
1.
Set of sound signals, the articulatory of phonetic system phonology
2.
Structural principles that put sounds signals in customary form –
grammar or morphology (structure)
3.
Set of meaning for signals and forms – (semantics); words embodying
all 3 aspects of language in significant interrelation –
vocabulary.
Kottak
gives the following parts:
Phonology
– study of sounds in human speech
Grammar
– arrangement of sounds into longer sequence of speech or longer
utterances
Lexicon
– vocabulary or the meaning system of language
Summing
up, then, all languages have a:
Well-defined
system of speech sounds
Grammar
– way of putting together words, phrases, sentences according to
definite rules. (All societies, whether pre-litertae pygmies or
advanced European groups, have grammar)
Vocabulary
which increases with every new culture item.
Linguistic
Structure
Analysis
of the language shows that it is composed of:
Phonemes
– similar sounds contrasting and mutually exclusive; the same
sounds, but different in meaning ass the word strike
Phonemes
– distinctive sounds, such as:
cat
and pat – alike except in initial phonemes
cat
and cot – alike except in middle phonemes
cat
and cap – alike except in final phonemes
Morphemes
– minimum significant unit forming a word or part of a word.
Ex.
income
from in
and come.
Morphemes
– composed of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. cat
is a morpheme made up of phonemes c,a,t. Phonemes p,a,t make up the
morpheme pat.
Morphology
– combinations of words into linguistic forms. The combination of
words into sentences following grammatical rules, such as subject
(noun), predicate, (verb) and modifier (adverb or adjective).
Importance
of the Study of Language
Language
should be studied as it is an aspect of culture that differentiates
man form animals. It should be used correctly as it is criterion that
differences the educated from the uneducated.
Writing
A
confusion arises with regard to language and writing as if the later
is a special language. This may be explained by the fact that in
school, children learn to read and write almost at the same time.
Also , when we speak of literacy, we think of ability to read and
write. Written language, however, is different from spoken language.
Writing,
according to Beals and Hoijer, is “a set of techniques for the
graphic representation of speech.” Herskovitz defines writing as
“round-about speech or mechanical gesture; a series of graphic
symbols (or symbol of symbols) which hold and store information more
or less permanently according to the medium, apart from the
individuals who are in communication.
Invention
of Writing
Writing
is a more recent invention than language. While language appeared
more than a million years ago, that is, when man first acquired the
rudiments of culture, the first written records in English were dated
A.D. 900.
Writing
was invented more than once in several places. The earliest invention
was in Egypt, probably in the Bronze Age. This spread to Europe and
Asia, and underwent many changes. The Chinese also developed their
own system of writing, and so did the Indians of Central America at a
much later date. The Aztecs of Mexico also had writing which was
probably derived from the Central American Indian.
Development
of Writing
Writing
perhaps originated from drawing, which was as much part of culture as
language Conventionalized pictographs may be regarded as the earliest
form of writing. In fact, the life style of primitive people was
gleaned from the pictures drawn on the walls of their cave dwellings.
With time, the pictorial symbols became more and more abbreviated.
This kind of writing was called pictograph or picture writing.
True
writing perhaps began when conventionalized graphic symbols became
associated with the sounds of a language. Symbols stood for words or
particular combinations of speech sounds. This was called logographic
writing and the symbols that represented words were called logograms.
Logographs or logograms appeared in the Near East, in Chinese, and in
Maya Writing. The problem of logographic writing was the difficulty
of representing abstract ideas.
China
continued the above trend and developed the traditional ideographic
writing – a distinctive symbol for each idea. In modern Chinese
writing, symbols are reduced to 214 basic characters which may be
combined. To read and write Chinese fluently, it is necessary to
memorize all these symbols. Most Chinese words are one syllable, but
in English where long words have several syllables, this system of
writing would be difficult.
Recognition
of the phonetic factor made words that are the same in sound but
different in meaning, represented by the same character. Phonetic
characters that have a constant phonographic value are called
phonograms. Phonograms came to be associated with syllables rather
than whole words and were called syllabaries. Syllabaries became
widespread. Mesopotamia (Iraq), Babylonia, and Sumeria wrote their
ancient languages by means of a syllabary. They wrote on clay tablets
with a stylus having a wedge-shaped edge end. The writing was called
cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning “wedge”. Old Persian
and Greek were also written in syllabic characters. Syllabic writing
is still used in Japan today where the Japanese syllabary has about
65 characters.
The
alphabetic system of writing developed around 1800 B.C. when Semitic
– speaking peoples took the Egyptian syllabary of 24 characters and
transformed these into consonant symbols. Alphabetic writing is
further refinement of phonographic symbolism whereby a character
becomes attached to a phoneme that conveys appropriate meanings.
Ex.:
pear, pair, pare
The
Phonenicians are credited with the invention of the alphabet where
they substituted consonants for the 24 characters. The Greeks added
vowels in place of the consonants they did not need. From the Greeks,
the complete alphabet spread to Rome and to other European countries.
This is the alphabet that we are using now.
Relation
of Writing to Language
Writing
has a history of its own and developed separately from language. They
are not the same although they are related. There are two different
aspects of culture. Language is a complex of patterns that govern or
control speech while writing is the written symbol of speech. Writing
is a recent invention compared to language. All societies having more
or less the same level of development possess language, but not
writing. Writing is found in advanced societies but may be lacking in
primitive tribes.
Importance
of Writing
Writing
is essential to the highly complex civilization today. It makes
possible long distance communication. It is a means of keeping
records and preserving them for posterity. It is vital to the system
of education, research, and to world culture. That is why scientists
consider the invention of writing as the beginning of true
civilization. However, learning, literacy, and education became
widely spread only with the invention of the printing press.
Educational
Implications
Since
language is an aspect of culture, one should study the language well
and speak it correctly.
The
more languages a person knows, the better educated he is and the
easier he can adjust to other peoples.
To
understand people, it is necessary to know their language.
Knowing
a people’s language is a means of fostering good public relations.
Since
English is the language spoken throughout most of the world, one
should study it well.
Reading
books and magazines is one way of increasing one’s vocabulary.
A
person should learn to write legibly and clearly as this is a mark
of the well-educated.
Fluency
in speaking and writing comes with practice; so one should take
every opportunity to speak and write well.
What
other implications can be made regarding language and writing?
RELIGION
What
are some of the great religions of the world? What role does religion
play in human affairs?
Another
factor in man’s life that influences his behavior is religion. What
is religion?
Definition
of Religion
Pi-Sunyer
and Salzmann define religion as “recognition of belief in some
source or power that transcends human and is capable of assisting or
harming them.”
Anthony
F.C. Wallace gives this definition – “a kind of human behavior
which can be classified as belief and ritual concerned with
supernatural beings, powers and forces.”
Beals
and Hoijer define religion as “ response to man’s needs for an
organized conception of the universe, for mechanism that will allay
his anxieties concerning his inability to predict and understand
events that do not conform to natural law.”
To
Herskovitz, religion is the control of the universe; means by which
man maintains himself in the scheme of things.
From
the foregoing definitions, certain characteristics of religion are
evident, such as: (1) belief in the supernatural which is all
powerful, (2) an influence on human behavior, (3) an explanation for
what is unexpected. Examples of situations or occurrences that cannot
be explained by science and where religion is used to provide the
answers are:
A
healthy individual who had no previous history of heart disease
suddenly has a heart attack and dies.
A
person who had cancer as shown by x-ray suddenly shows no trace of
the disease (by x-ray) after a visit to Lourdes shrine, France.
An
out-of-reason typhoon in April destroys a crop.
A
very good husband, rich and good-looking, is deserted by his wife.
Nature
of Religion
In
some societies there is a belief in a generalized and impersonal
force, influence, or power that exists invisibly throughout the
universe and may be possessed to a greater or lesser degree by gods,
men, the forces of nature (sun, moon, rain, or thunder) and natural
objects such as pools, rivers, trees, stones. A concept of impersonal
power exists. In other societies, there is a belief in gods, spirits,
and other personalized supernaturals. Some tribes believe in animism
where the spirit continues to exist after the death or destruction of
the body. The spirits are supposed to control events in the material
world and in man’s life. This led to the beliefs in souls and in a
future state, which is part of the Catholic religion today.
Folk
or Primitive Religion
Where
or how religion started in not very clear, but even the primitive
tribes had some kind of religion. American Indians worshipped
supernatural beings. The Aztecs of Mexico worshipped a god. The
city-state of Athens worshipped the goddess Athena. The Greeks and
the Romans had their gods and goddesses. The Roman emperor and the
Egyptian pharaoh were regarded as deities in times of classical
antiquity. The Japanese emperor was venerated as descendant of the
sun-god before World War II.
Variety
of Religious
Today
many different kinds of religions abound in the world. The Christian
religions are composed of Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox
(Greek) Catholics and Judaoe-Christianity. The non-Christian
religions consist of:
Islam-Mohammedan
Buddhism
Confucianism
Hinduism
Zoroastrianism
Jewish
Shintoism
Animism
There
are many things that are common in all religion rather than
differences. The golden rule is part of most religions.
Belief
in Most Societies Regarding Religion
Whatever
religion they belong to, different societies have common beliefs.
These are:
Religion
does things for people. Most prayers ask for something that people
want done for them.
Religion
has to do with the powers of the universe, the range and intensity
of these powers, and the manner in which they influence the lives of
people. Religion influences not only the life style of people, but
also their behavior. The Moslems do not eat pork. In India, the cow
is not only not eaten, but it is venerated. Most Catholics do not
eat meat on Fridays, especially on Good Friday. Seventh Day
Adventists are mostly vegetarians.
There
are methods by which these powers may be enlisted in behalf of man,
not only as benevolent guardians, but also as agents that may help
man achieve certain ends. Some of the methods employed are prayers,
masses, sacrifices, abstinence, apostolic work, etc. Christians
usually make sacrifices and penance during Holy Week. Novelas are a
common means employed by Catholics to request something. Some have
masses said for many occasions. Going to Mecca is to the Moslems
what going to Jerusalem is to the Christians. It probably represents
the nearest thing to heaven on this earth.
Instruments
of Religion
To
reach ends desired by man, different instrument of religion are used.
There is the ritual, which is prescribed way of performing religious
acts. Various religions have different rituals. Examples are the rain
dance performed by American Indians, the temple dance, dance to the
gods by Bestal Virgins. Praying, singing sacred songs, making
sacrifices, preparing offerings, making the sign of the cross, are
other rituals. Prayer may be a devout petition, a supplication to an
object of worship, a thanksgiving, or a spiritual communion with God.
A ceremony is a number of interconnected and related rituals,
performed at a given time. Examples of ceremonies are:
Sunday
morning service
Marriage
ceremony
Baptismal
rites and confirmation rites
Puberty
rites
Blessing
of a house
Processions
to a patron saint
Taboos
are prohibitions. Different religions have certain taboos, which are
ignored, are supposed to bring down misfortune on the violator.
Examples, of taboos are those on food and incest. There is also the
taboo on prohibition of sexual intercourse while the mother is
nursing the baby. Sometimes this taboo may act to maintain population
level.
Religious
Practitioners
In
the educational field, the teacher is the agent of instruction. In
the religious world who are the leaders or practitioners? They are:
The
Shaman – man or who serves society as part-time religious
practitioner – usually in primitive societies.
The
priest or minister – full-time religious practitioner who gets
power through association with an organized religious group.
Priest
are prepared by intensive training unlike the shaman who may be the
result of inspiration or possession by a god or spirit.
The
other word religions also have their leaders or practitioners.
Use
of Religion
Religion
is used to:
Explain
events or situations that defy comprehension (meaningless,
contradictory or inexplicable)
Provide
comfort in times of stress and anxiety.
Set
guidelines for conduct of human affairs and furnish a sense of
common purpose for members of a social group.
Role
or Function of Religion are:
Provide
an organized picture of the universe and establish orderly
relationships between man and his surroundings.
Reduce
fears and anxieties and give man not only a feeling of security in
the uncertain present, but the hope as well of a tolerable future.
Reflect
close and intimate relations with the world of the supernatural and
also with animals, plants, and other aspects of nature.
Reinforce
and maintain cultural values.
Few
religions except Judaism and Christianity are linked to ethics and
morality.
Support
and emphasize particular culturally defined standards of behavior.
Preserves
knowledge through rituals and ceremony.
Ceremonies
are dramas that symbolically re-enact important procedures.
Rituals
and ceremonies together with uniform beliefs, contribute to social
participation and solidarity.
individual
participation in such occasions bring emotional satisfaction.
ceremonies
were as a social function which develop social cohesion and group
solidarity.
Also
create and maintain divisions.
Instrument
of change – Ex. Jesus Christ’s preaching of love
Educational
Implications
It
is important for every one to have a religion in view of the role
that religion play’s in one’s life.
Since
religion influences behavior, one should choose one’s religion
wisely.
Since
the nature and function of all religions are the same, there should
be tolerance of all religions.
One
should study one’s religion well and live it.
Apply
the teachings of religion to self, family, community, and the world.
Make
your own implications regarding your religion.
THE
ARTS
Why
is art important? What are its functions?
Nature
and Definition of Art
If
religion stems from a psychological need in the individual, perhaps
the same thing may be said of the arts. Art is a part of culture and
dates back to antiquity. It is present in all societies although not
at the same rate of development. That art is universal is probably
the best proof that it satisfies a deep psychological need common to
all people.
What
is art? The dictionary defines art as a production or expression of
what is beautiful or appealing; an esthetic expression. According to
Beals, art is “an activity that over and above its utilitarian
values brings satisfaction both to the artist and to those who
participate in his work as beholders, audience, or collaborators.”
This esthetic exponent differentiates art from other aspects of
culture.
The
earliest stages of art were realistic or representative of
expression. Later, art became geometric, symbolic, and decorative in
expression. The tendency is to change toward progressive
simplification and conventionalization. Painting is a good example.
In the beginning, paintings were made to appear as close as possible
to the original as shown by landscapes and portraits of people. Now,
modern painting has become symbolic and representational ass shown by
cubistic painting. The works of Picazzo and Edades illustrate this.
The trend now is toward impressionistic painting.
Functions
of Art
Of
what use is art? The following are the functions of art:
Art
gives esthetic satisfaction to artists, performers, audience or
participants. A person sings for the mere pleasure it gives him.
People dance because they enjoy doing it. Watching a ballet
performance or listening to a symphonic concert gives pleasure.
Looking at a painting may evoke pleasant emotions.
Art
serves as a medium for the communication of ideas, attitudes and
values. The degree of communication depends on how much the
conventions and symbols use are understood by the audience. For
instance, in our society, a halo or a ring over the head of a figure
symbolizes a saint. Some primitive groups may not understand this.
In Chinese and Japanese plays, the actors and actresses wear masks.
The audience should know which mask represents the hero, the
heroine, and the villain. A room in a stage drama has only three
walls. Sometimes, all walls are dispensed with in the arena style of
drama.
Art
conserves and reinforces beliefs, customs, attitudes and values.
This function is possessed by all arts, but it is more evident in
literary and pictorial arts. The religious art in the architecture
of churches, the religious scenes, and the images of saints create
emotional and intellectual atmosphere needed for religious
exercises; serve to remind one in what he should believe in; and
when in drama form, serve for instructional purpose (or propaganda).
As
stated above, Art may be used for instructional purpose (or
propaganda). Examples of these are the mystery plays and the
religious dramas coupled with dance that were given in Europe during
the Middle Ages. In the Philippines, the “Moro-moro” plays where
Christians vanquished the Mohammedans, were used to spread
Christianity. Schools made use of Christmas plays, pageants, myths
and folk tales to develop certain attitudes and values. Today, mass
media like the motion picture, is a very good vehicle for changing
attitudes, instilling values, and solving social problems.
Art
reveals its relationship to society and shows how art forms are
transmitted through time and space. The state of the art in a
society is a reflection of the attitude of that society toward art
and its stage of progress. The collection of art works in the group
will not only give a history of art development but also show how
this has been transmitted from generation to generation.
Art
is a cultural tradition. The techniques used, the choice of subject
matter, the preferences or emphasis on certain art, the functions of
art, the attitudes toward art take the attitude toward paintings of
nude. There are many of these in the art galleries of Europe. Some
conservative societies may frown on paintings of nudes and this may
influence painters.
Music
Music
is the art that best shows the effect of cultural tradition in
deciding what is approved and desirable, both socially and
individually. However, what is pleasing I one society may not be so
in another. Chinese music sounds queer to Western eras and so does
music of primitive tribes.
Music
probably originated in song rather than in devised instruments. The
earliest forms of rhythmical activity that were accompanied by
singing were probably rocking infants, walking, or repeated regular
work movements. Music did away with the monotony of labor and acted
as stimulant.
Occassions
for music among non-literate people are:
Lullabies
composed by mothers which are learned by children and sung while
playing.
Songs
by young men to amuse and entertain their sweethearts.
Serenades
outside the tipi (tent) to the loved one.
Sacred
songs in time of personal crisis, ceremonies, and rituals.
Martial
songs before and after war.
Songs
of praise and mourning songs.
The
evolution of music passed through two stages. The first stage was
singing which went through the range of the human voice. The second
stage was musical expression by fashioned instruments.
The
history of music shows that what was considered “barbaric” in one
era may be accepted later. An example is jazz music which was not
accepted when it first appeared. Now, it is very popular. Primitive
music has rhythm, but lacks melody.
Today
some modern music seems to revert to rhythm, but lacks melody.
Musical
instruments developed much later than singing. The flute and
piccolo-like instruments made of wood, bamboo or bone were found in
most regions. There were also a few percussion instruments like
rattle, tambourine, and drums. Later, xylophone – like instrument
of wood and bamboo were also developed. In the Old World, complex
instruments capable of various effects and musical styles, were
invented. Stringed instruments like the multistringed lyre and
cithara spread from the Near East to the Old World.
The
major factors in the history of modern European music were:
Writing,
symbolic representation, and analysis of music.
Cumulative
advances in the technology of string instruments.
Development
of harmony.
Dance
The
dance is a universal feature of human society. It is found in all
groups as the human body has the same nervous system and muscle
equipment no matter what race. Hence, dance styles can be as complex
and beautiful among the primitives as among the civilized. The dance
which may display superb esthetic quality is not a rarity primitive
society.
The
different forms of the dance are religious or magico-ceremonial
dancing, play dancing, dramatic and symbolic dancing. The dance has a
social and cultural function.
The
dance originated far back in time. In primitive society, the dancer’s
body was not confined. Now, the higher the economic level the more
progressive and intriguing the dance regalia because recently, dance
themes became more entertaining rather than religious or
magico-ceremonial.
Poetry
and Pose
Although
prose and poetry are related, they are not the same. Prose is
ordinary, matter of fact language. Poetry is beautiful thought in
beautiful language, rhythmically expressed. Poetry is difficult to
separate from song. The poems of primitive people were short and
chanted.
Prose,
oral and written, is found among all peoples. The types of prose
found are:
Narratives,
which, like songs, are universal and are composed of –
Myths
– stories of another world that deal with gods, spirits and other
supernaturals; usually concerned with origins of the universe and its
aspects such as fire, food, animals, plants, death, illness, society,
ceremonials, and rituals.
Legends
– events in the present world or an earlier time with men as
actors; more worldly in content although they may include what is
wonderful, awesome, and supernatural.
Proverbs
and riddles – contains wisdom of the group. These are not as
universal in non-literate societies.
Rhymes
which are found only in literary productions.
Dramas
and oratory.
How
did oral literature come about? With the development of language,
events were described and narrated. Natural phenomena such as the
seasons, phases of the moon, path of the sun, comets, shooting stars,
tides, storms, lightning, thunder, floods, forest, fires, and fogs
were treated allegorically and became the origin of folk tales.
Folktales
perform certain functions, such as:
To
entertain
To
know the rationale behind customs and geographical features.
To
teach moral lessons.
To
direct minor educational functions.
Art
in the Individual
The
production of art involves two factors:
The
Culture and the period in history in which the artist participates.
The
people with whom he lives and works – critics, collaborators,
friends and relatives.
Art
is produced by individuals although many may collaborate a in a
dramatic production, a ballet, a symphonic concert, a movie
production, etc. Many forms, actions, and patterns may make up a
completed production, but the act of creating can be traced to an
individual. It is erroneous to think that a work of art is the
exclusive production of one person or that a movie is the sum of
individual contributions. In a painting, there is the painter and the
model. A poem is composed by the poet after being inspired by some
one. The artist gives expression to sentiments, and ideas that arise
through his interaction with others. Hence, social and cultural
setting is important.
The
artist may work in strict isolation, but he is always subject to
influences from his culture, historical period, and people with whom
he lives. An example is the narration of myths and legends wherein
the story teller adapts his tale to reactions of the audience. This
is also true in singing.
In
primitive society, the individual is not given ass much prominence as
a modern society where the painter or novelist may become famous.
Hence, in primitive society, art is designated as folk art.
Educational
Implications
Art
should be included in the curriculum of the elementary, secondary,
and tertiary levels.
The
second should try to find out the kind of artistic inclination of
the child and try to develop this.
In
order to give outlets for different individual talents, the school
should offer varied extra-curricular activities, such as Glee Club,
Dramatics, Dance Troupe, Rondalla, etc.
Field
trips to museums, libraries, etc. should be sponsored by the school.
Artists
may be invited by the school to give demonstrated lectures so that
children and youth may have first hand experience with different art
forms.
Participation
in singing contests, declamation and oratorical contest and other
contests should be encouraged by the school.
References
Anthropology,
New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc. 1952 Chapter XVI.
Beals,
Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry, Introduction
to Anthropology,
New York: The McMillan Co.,1965, Chapter 9.
Bertrand,
Alvin L. Basic
Sociology.
2nd
edition. New York: Meredith Corporation, 1973, Chapter 2 and 6.
Catapusan,
Benicio T. and Catapusan, Flora Diaz. Introduction
to Sociology,
Quezon City: Filipino Books, Inc, 1973, Chapter 4.
Dressler,
David with Garns, Donald. Sociology
2nd.
ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1973, Chapters 1, 3, and 10.
Espiritu,
Socorro C. Sociology
in the New Philippine Society.
Q.C. Alemar – Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. 1977, Chapters 3 and
5.
Fried,
Morton, Readings in Anthropology. New York: Thomas F. Crowell
Co.,1959. Chapter 20, 31. 32.
Herskovitz,
Melville and Stern, Bernhard T. General
Keesing.
Felix M. Cultural
Anthropology.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958, Chapter VII.
Kluckhon,
Clyde, Mirror for Mass, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc.1949,
Chapter 6.
Kottack,
Conrad Philip, Anthropology, New York: Random Home, Inc. 1974,
Chapter 13.
Ross,
H. Laurence, Perspectives
on the Social Order.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963, Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
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