METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com
Introduction
The growth in qualitative research is a well-noted
fact in the field of educational research. It is Concerned with the opinions, experiences, and
feelings of individuals producing subjective data and it does not attempt at analyzing it into
quantifiable or measurable components as in Quantitative research. It takes into consideration
the totality of phenomenon. It seeks
understanding, extrapolation, and explanation to similar situations. Education as
a discipline has wide base with diverse concerns, thus many of its problems certainly be meaningfully investigated by means of
different approaches including both qualitative and quantitative researches. Qualitative
data are verbal or other symbolic materials. The general methods used in the
qualitative research for the holistic study of a phenomenon are highlighted here.A case study may indeed be viewed as ethnography; however, the investigator may have set out to answer a particular question rather than to describe a group or scene as a whole. It uses observational techniques to examine a social unit as a whole. Data analysis of case study research focuses on the holistic description of the cases including individuals, communities, institutions etc.
Some qualitative approaches use technical methods (such as statistical content analysis) to determine the significance of findings, while others rely on researchers thoughtful reflection. Once a question or issue has been selected, the choice of qualitative methods falls roughly into the categories of observations, interviews, and document and artifact analysis. Qualitative methods, however, form continua on various dimensions, and researchers espouse many views of how methods may be categorized and conceptualized. One advantage of qualitative methods in exploratory research is that use of open-ended questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words, rather than forcing them to choose from fixed responses, as quantitative methods do. Open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:
• Meaningful and culturally salient to the participant
• Unanticipated by the researcher
• Rich and explanatory in nature
Pelto and Pelto (1978) in their frequently cited text on anthropological research methods remind us that the human investigator is the primary research instrument. These authors categorize methods as either verbal or nonverbal techniques. Verbal techniques include participant observation, questionnaires, and various forms of structured and unstructured interviews. Nonverbal techniques include observations and measures of interactions; proxemics, kinesics, and research involving videotaped observations; use of various types of technical equipment for collecting data; content analysis; and analysis of artifacts and records. Pelto and Pelto (1978) add that methods may be described as having an "emic" or insider's view, as in participant observation, versus an "etic" or outsider's view, as in nonparticipant stream-of-behavior analyses. As in all qualitative research, it is also assumed that educational technology researchers will use and refine methods with the view that the methods used vary in their degree of interactiveness with subjects. Some of the general methods in conducting qualitative research are:
Grounded
Theory
Grounded theory is considered a type of qualitative methodology. The focus of grounded theory approach is on the development of inductive,”bottom up “theory that is grounded directly in the empirical data. In grounded theory, the data may come from observations, interviews, and videotape or document analysis, and, as in other qualitative research, these data may be considered strictly qualitative or may be quantitative. The purpose of the methodology is to develop theory, through an interactive process of data analysis and theoretical analysis, with verification of hypotheses ongoing throughout the study.
A recent example of a grounded-theory approach in an educational technology study is that of Oliver's (1992). This research investigated and described the activities used in a university televised distance education system, analyzing the use of camera techniques as they related to interaction in class. Oliver videotaped hours of two-way video instruction and analyzed the amount and kind of classroom interactions that occurred. She also examined and described the various television shots and transitions used. Outside observers also coded the videotapes. Using grounded-theory techniques, Oliver used the data she transcribed and the emerging categories of data to create a theory of televised instruction. The theory involved the use of close-up camera techniques and the "clean-cut" transition to enhance interaction.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is a qualitative method frequently used in social science research. It is reasonable that fine educational technology research can be conducted using participant observation techniques, with somewhat limited research questions. Not every phenomenon can possibly be recorded. Most qualitative observational studies rely on the researcher's writing down what occurs in the form of extensive field notes. The researcher then analyzes these notes soon after observations are carried out, noting patterns of behaviors and events and phenomena to investigate in further observations. Still, the researcher is the instrument in most participant observations and, being human, cannot observe and record everything. Therefore, in most educational research studies, the investigator determines ahead of time what will be observed and recorded, guided but not limited by the research questions.
In an example of a limited participant observation case study, Robinson (1994) observed classes using "Channel One" in a Midwestern middle school. While Robinson was not there for more than one semester, she did observe and participate in the class discussions for many hours of classroom instruction, as well as interview about 10% of the students. She did not focus on all school activities, or on all the categories of interaction within the classrooms, but focused her observations and field notes on the use of the televised news show and the reaction to it from students, teachers, administrators, and parents.
Nonparticipant Observation
Nonparticipant observation is one of several methods for collecting data considered to be relatively unobtrusive. Nonparticipant observation is often used to study focused aspects of a setting, in order to answer specific questions within a study. This method can yield extensive detailed data, over many subjects and settings, if desired, in order to search for patterns, or to test hypotheses developed as a result of using other methods, such as interviews. It can thus be a powerful tool in triangulation. Observational data may be coded into categories, frequencies tabulated, and relationships analyzed, yielding quantitative reports of results. Many qualitative studies using observational techniques are case studies, and many in educational technology have involved the use of computers in schools. One such study was conducted by Dana (1994), who investigated how the pedagogical beliefs of one first-grade teacher related to her classroom curriculum and teaching practices. The teacher was an experienced and creative computer user who modeled the use of computers for her peers. Many hours of interviews and observations of the classes were made. Classroom videotapes were coded by outside reviewers who were trained to identify examples of the teacher's beliefs, exemplified in classroom practice. Her study provided insights into the methodology and teaching and learning in a computer-rich environment. She suggested changes that schools could make to encourage teachers to become better able to incorporate technology into their classrooms.
Interviews
In contrast with the relatively noninteractive, nonparticipant observation methods described earlier, interviews represent a classic qualitative research method that is directly interactive (see 41.2.2). Interview techniques, too, vary in how they may be classified, and again, most vary in certain dimensions along continua, rather than being clearly dichotomous. For instance, Bernard (1988) describes interview techniques as being structured or unstructured to various degrees. He describes the most informal type of interviewing, followed by unstructured interviewing that has some focus. Next, Bernard mentions semi structured interviewing and finally structured interviews, typically involving what he calls an interview schedule, which others call interview protocols, that is, sets of questions, or scripts. Fontana and Frey (1994) expand this classification scheme by noting that interviews may be conducted individually or in groups. Again, exemplifying modern trends in qualitative research, these authors add that unstructured interviews now may include oral histories, and creative and postmodern interviewing, the latter of which may include use of visual media and polyphonic interviewing, that is, almost verbatim reporting of respondents' words, as well as gendered interviewing in response to feminist concerns. An interview is a form of conversation in which the purpose is for the researcher to gather data that address the study's goals and questions.
Denzin NK, Lincoln YS (eds.). Participant observations may choose to conduct a series of relatively unstructured interviews that seem more like conversations with the respondents. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) summarize these ideas:
Good interviews are those in which the subjects are at ease and talk freely about their points of view.... Good interviews produce rich data filled with words that reveal the respondents' perspectives (p. 97).
Document and Artifact Analysis
Beyond nonparticipant observation, many unobtrusive methods exist for collecting information about human behaviors. These fall roughly into the categories of document and artifact analyses, but overlap with other methods. For instance, the verbal or nonverbal behavior streams produced during videotaped observations may be subjected to intense microanalysis to answer an almost unlimited number of research questions.
Content analysis of prose in any form may also be considered to fall into this artifact-and-docurnent category of qualitative methodology. Pelto and Pelto (1978) refer to analysis of such cultural materials as folktales, myths, and other literature, although educational technologists would more likely analyze, for example, content presented in learning materials. More information about content analysis given by Manning and Cullum-Swan (1994).
Conclusion
Qualitative research has the advantage of studying a phenomenon in a holistic perspective. It is most suitable in the study of human behavior which is fluid, dynamic and situational. It utilizes flexible design. Purposive sampling is the dominant strategy in qualitative research. Thus the above discussed general methods can be used for studying a phenomenon in holistic perspective. Moreover, with increased diversification in the context of education, There is a need for adopting multi-method approach, involving both qualitative and quantitative paradigms to the methodology of educational studies.
References
Handbook
of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications, 2000
Borg, W. R.,
& Gall, M. D. Educational research: An introduction
(5th ed.). New York: Longman,1989
Koul, Lokesh. Methodology of Educational research.Shimla: Vikas Publications,2010
