Anthropological Foundations of Education
(Full module in one post)
Prepared by
Sabarish P
Anthropology was derived from the Greek word anthrope meaning man and logy meaning science. The literal meaning of anthropology then is science of man. It is the study of mankind. The dictionary defines anthropology as the science that treats of the origin, development (physical, intellectual, moral, etc.) and specially the cultural development, customs, beliefs, etc. of man. Briefly, Herskovitz defines anthropology as “the science of man and his works.” According to Jacobs and Stern, anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on earth.
Actually, anthropology studies man as a member of the animal kingdom and studies his behavior as a member of society. Man is unique in the animal kingdom because (1) he walks erect, (2) he uses his hands for handling, and (3) he has a more complex brain. (4) He is also unique in the field of behavior for the following reasons:
He possesses tools and other material artifacts.
He has complex techniques for getting and preparing food.
He has social and political organization.
He has a system of religious beliefs and rituals.
He communicates by means of language.
Divisions of Anthropology
Anthropology may be classified as physical and cultural. Physical anthropology deals with the study of man as a product of the evolutionary process. It is connected with man’s bodily structures. It studies and analyzes human population. Cultural anthropology deals with man’s behavior and with ways human beings carry out the activities of daily living. The diversity of human behavior is seen in: food habits, ways food is cooked, habits of dress and ornaments and relations with in-laws. Cultural anthropology has the following sub-divisions:
Archaeology which deals with ancient cultures and past phases of modern civilization based on documents, paintings, stone carvings, etc. It is the study of antiquity by the excavation and description of remains. Through diggings and fossils remains, the age of man has been established. In 1654, according to Archbishop Ussher of Ireland, the first man as well as the universe, was created 4004 B.C. Archaeology has also established different eras or periods of the earth when living things appeared, more than 1,500 million years ago. In geology, these eras are: (1) the Archezoic when primitive forms of life appeared, (2) the Protozoic when early life forms increased, and (3) Paleozoic when fish, amphibians, and other marine forms appeared, and (4) the Mesozoic when huge reptiles predominated. This was also called the Age of Reptiles. (5) The Cenozoic era followed in which there were more advanced forms of animals.
The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods: (1) the Tertiary or Age of Mammals and the Quartenary, or age when modern forms of man first appeared. The Quartenary is divided into (1) Pleistocene (Ice Age) period when man first appeared and culture began and (2) Holocene period. Discovery of stone tools, implements and houses has held to the period known as Stone Age.
Ethnology treats of and describes diverse cultures and explains similarities and differences. It deals with the sub-divisions of mankind, their origins, relations, speech, institutions, etc. Mankind is divided into five races – white, black, yellow, red and brown. Within each race, there are subdivisions. For example the Americans, German, French, Spanish, Scandinavians, etc. all belong to the white race, but they have their own culture and physical characteristics, and they have different levels of civilization. As to the origin of man, there are several versions. There are also many different places where the bones of pre-historic man were found.
Linguistics, which is concerned with man’s language, non-literate or literate, past and present. It takes up interrelation between language of a people and other aspects of culture. As a science, it includes phonetics, phonemics, morphology, and syntax. The sub-divisions are descriptive linguistics and comparative or historical linguistics. It is obvious that every country has its language and dialects, for all people whether civilized or not, have a means of communication. This means of communication is language, which differentiates man from animals. There are several characteristics of language, however, that may change, improve, add, subtract, or enrich its meaning, such as intonation and emphasis or stress. The study of language is called linguistics who has two sub-divisions as stated above.
Descriptive linguistics deals with the classification, arrangement and study of the features language which will be taken up later. Comparative or historical linguistics takes up the changes in language, the borrowings from other languages, and the comparison of languages.
The diagram may make the sub-divisions of anthropology clearer.
Relation of Anthropology to Other Sciences
Physical Anthropology is related to the biological sciences - anatomy, physiology, embryology and genetics. Social Anthropology is related to sociology, psychology, geography, and economics and political science. Cultural anthropology is related to humanistic disciplines such as history, literature, arts and music.
Practical Applications of anthropology
The questions may will be asked. Of what use is anthropology? Anthropology has practical uses. Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism by instilling appreciation of other cultures through study of other societies and cultures, it contributes to education. It suggest the potential and general value of anthropology in inspiring government action. Research on all aspects of culture is undertaken by anthropologists. Through anthropological studies, programs of aid in the military, economic, and political fields are assessed and evaluated. Not only is there evaluation, but also inspiration of economic development and technical assistant programs. Through what is termed “Participant interference,” anthropology acts catalyzer and instigates action.
REFERENCES:
Ballen, Jerome B. “Physical Anthropology and its Place ion General Education.” Anthropology: Range and Relevance, Zamora, Mario and Salazar, Zews A. Quezon City: Kayumanggi Publishers, 1969, pp. 195-206.
Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry. An Introduction to Anthropolgy , 3rd ed. New York: The MacMillian Co., 1965, Chapter 1.
Jacobs, Melville, and Stern, Bernhard J., General Anthropology, N.Y. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1952, Chapter 1.
Kottak, Conrad Philip. Anthropology, New York: Random House, 1974, Chapter 1.
Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdeneck. Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houhgton Mifflin Co.,1978. Chapter 1.
Zamora, Mario D. and Lawless, Robert, An Introduction to Anthropology for Non-Anthropologists, ed. Zamora and Lawless, Quezon City: College of Arts and Sciences, UP., 1966-67.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
How are culture and society related? What are the kinds, forms, and components of culture?
Meaning of Culture
Different meanings come to mind with the word culture. A person who is refined in manners and speech is said to be a “cultured” individual. A descendant of a line of “ladies” and “gentlemen” or of nobility who has wealth and do not need to work is “cultured.” One who observes the rules of etiquette is “cultured”. Knowledge about a wide range of subjects is designated as “culture.” “Culture” also means esthetic interest and sophisticated understanding of arts and humanities. High level of perfection in art, science, etc. is also deemed “culture”.
Sociologically, culture has a different meaning from those given above. According to Dressler, “culture is a social heritage, transmitted from one generation to another and shared. It consists of the sum total of skill, beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by a number of people and transmitted to their children.” Through culture, therefore, people learn to communicate with each other and to think and behave in certain ways approved by the group. According to Smith, Stanley, and Shores, “culture is the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, methods of thinking, customs, and institutions into which each member of society is born. Culture is that part of the environment which man himself has made.” Bertrand defines culture as “the complex whole which includes knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, law, costumes, and other capabilities gained by man as a member of society.” Other definitions of culture are:
Clyde Kluckhon – Historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational, and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for behavior.
American College Dictionary – Particular stage or state of civilization of a nation or period, such as Greek culture, sum total ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from generation to generation.
Way people have learned to live together; behavior learned as a result of living in groups which tend to be patterned and to be transmitted from generation to generation.
Ragan – the environment man has made consisting of artifacts, ideas, language, attitudes, beliefs, customs, etc. existing at a particular time and place.
Classification of Culture
Culture may be classified as static or dynamic. It is static when it emphasizes cultural transmission; i.e., the same culture is passed on from generation to generation. It is dynamic when it emphasizes change; i.e., it goes thru revision with each generation.
Culture may also be classified as stable or unstable. The culture is stable where folkways and mores are satisfying New elements and traits are incorporated smoothly and without conflict. In a stable culture, the more educated the individual, the more conservative he becomes. Where the group does not have satisfying solutions to most of its problems and conflicts, the culture is usually unstable. Conflict exists between the traditional and radical groups and their values. The more educated the individual, the more he sees the inadequacy of the culture. In unstable culture the school should pay attention to developing worthwhile values and provide for change.
How would you classify our culture?
Forms of Culture
Culture may be material or non-material. Material culture consists of tangible things houses, clothing, tools, utensils, automobiles, TV, etc. Non-material culture refers to what is symbolic or intangible such as sentiments, folkways, mores, systems, and beliefs and knowledge. What form of Philippine culture is becoming more prevalent among the youth in the Philippines today?
Examples of non-material culture follow:
Folkways are traditional ways of doing things in a certain culture. An example of a folkway in the Philippines is pamanhikan where the parents of the boy ask for the girl’s hand in marriage. Mores are heavily sanctioned folkways for group survival and are accepted without question as they embody moral views of the group. An Igorot folkway is for a boy to sleep in the ulog with the girl he is courting. If she becomes pregnant and he does not marry her, he is ostracized by the whole group, according to the mores of the tribe.
Costum means habitual practice. It is a custom in the Philippines to invite a guest to partake of a meal if he happens to b in the house at meal time. Another custom is for children to kiss the hand of their grandparents. Beliefs are also part of non-material culture. In India, some walk on live coals or lie a bed of nails and come out unscathed according to their belief. In Pampanga, every Good Friday, a man himself nailed to the Cross in the belief that no harm would come to him and nothing does.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Culture is made of material or non-material triats. A combination of related traits form a culture complex, such as a football complex which is made up of football and the rules of the game. A culture complex has traits patterned around another important trait. Examples are the horse and buggy complex, automobile complex, television complex, and superiority complex. In a superiority complex, the central traits to which others are related is the thought that over-confidence, condescencion toward all others, self-pride, boastfulness, over-bearing manner, swaggering attitude, affectation in manner, etc. A culture pattern is a combination of culture complexes, as for instance, a sports pattern made up of football, basketball, and track cultures. “Pattern” refers to a specific way of behaving that is part of a given culture. For example, the way of greeting:
Americans – shake hands
Latin Americans – embrace
Eskimos – touch noses
Thai – put hands together and bow
Japanese – bow deeply
Filipino young or old – kiss hands
Functions of Culture
Culture is important and useful in many ways. Through culture, communication is possible by means of an language that is learned. People belonging to the same culture can anticipate how others may respond to their actions. The culture provides standards for differentiating right and wrong, beautiful and ugly, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous, reasonable and unreasonable. Among Christians, pre-marital sex is considered immoral, but not among the Igorots. To the Moslems, it is all right to have more than one wife, but not to the Christians. A tattooed body is considered beautiful by some African tribes, but it is ugly in the eyes of others. Children are trained to behave in ways approved by the group. Every culture provides the knowledge and skills needed for its survival. Through their culture, people identify with others and feel a sense of belonging.
Characteristics of Culture
What are the characteristics of a culture?
They are:
Only human society possess culture.
Human cultures vary considerably although they resemble each other in some respects.
Culture tends to persist, once learned and accepted.
Culture changes gradually and continuously.
Culture exists in the minds of men who learned it from previous generations and who use it to guide their conduct with others.
There is a tendency to borrow from other cultures.
Members of a culture may behave differently as in the case of those who belong to sub-cultures.
Ex. Ilokanos may behave differently from the Visayans although they are both Filipinos.
No person can escape entirely from his culture.
Another authority gives the following set of characteristics:
Culture is concerned with actions, ideas, and artifacts which individual learn, share and value.
Others call this organized group behavior an institution.
Ex. English taking afternoon tea.
“Misa de gallo” (dawn masses) before Christmas
Culture may be regarded as a historical phenomenon, originating through innovation and spread by diffusion.
Ex. Association of candles with religion.
Carrying candles during processions.
Culture may be regarded as a regional phenomenon
geographic or locality distribution.
Ex. drinking coffee; smoking which originated with American Indians an spread throughout the world.
Culture tends to be patterned – repetition of similar approved behavior so that it has a form or structure. Specific way of behaving in a certain culture.
Ex. making the sign of the cross when passing a church
Cultural elements have a function.
Ex. social status enhanced by owning a car
Culture tends to be integrated – unity of premises, values, goals.
Ex. meaning of fiesta or patron saint
Culture is subject to change.
Individual conduct varies, innovations occur, etc.
Ex. change in form and function of candles.
Culture is valid to the extent that the local way of life is well-defined, homogenous, stable.
Yet variations may occur, such as sub-cultures. Certain wedding practices may exist only in certain regions. In Lucban, Quezon, after the wedding, there is a dance where bride and groom take partners who pin money on them. This is repeated with several partners until quite a sum is accumulated.
Culture is sometimes designated as a system where interrelated elements are treated as a whole.
Ex. American culture has specific cultural systems which may be termed sub-cultures.
Culture is a “continuum” – passed on from individual to individual, from generation to generation.
Culture is “symbolic” – meanings attached to artifacts and personal motivations.
Ex. We have to know the meaning of certain wedding ceremonies or they would seem foolish to us. What is the meaning of pinning the veil and cord around the bride and groom?
Concept of Society
Culture is created by society which approves its system of values. It also includes a system of intermediate values that implements the ultimate values. Society, however, does not mean just the total sum of its people. To survive, society needs to perform certain basic needs, suh as law and order, transporation, agriculture, and industrial systems.
Meaning of Society
What constitute a society? To Keesing, it is an organized group or population. To Linton, it is human beings and institutions by which they live together in their culture. According to Dressler, “a society consists of all the people who share a distinct and continuous way of life. (that is, a culture) and think of themselves as one united people.” Bertrand defines society as “a social group that occupies territory, recruit its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, has a shared comprehensive culture.” To Smith, Stanley, and Shores, a society is a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have something in common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, an esprit de corps which makes the individual under certain circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group.”
From the above definitions, it follows that a group of people does not constitute a society unless it has the characteristics mentioned above.
How are society and culture related?
Relation Between Culture and Society
There can be no culture without society and there can be no society without culture. Both society and culture have common elements, but the two are not identical. Society is composed of people; culture consists of things people have learned to do, to behave, and to enjoy.
Personality and Characteristics in Relation to Culture
Each individual is unique. heredity and environment (education, training, etc.) give him/his individuality. He is not a passive recipient of culture; he is active, creative, and reacts actively to his culture; he may add innovations to culture.
Development of his personality is influenced by his capacity to learn, need to interact with others, ability to select, to create, to make individual decisions in relation to cultural and social milieu. Character is sometimes used interchangeably with personality. Character, however, refers more to moral qualities or ethical standards. Character influences behavior. Behavior of individuals influences the culture and culture influences individuals. Socialization is becoming a member of society – assumption of place within a social system.
Educational Implications
Cultures differ and one should not judge another culture by using his own culture as basis.
To avoid prejudices, there should be more contact between cultures.
Travel, education, and reading about other societies are ways of bringing about tolerance and understanding between nations.
With more diffusion between cultures, one global society may result.
With the U.S as the best example of people getting along in spite of different sub-cultures, perhaps a one world concept may be brought about some day. Unity in spite of diversity.
Society can be improve by improving the culture.
Since culture is made by man himself, he should develop worthwhile values and weed out those beliefs, mores, superstitions, etc. that are detrimental to progress.
Since culture is learned, the school should inculcate in the young, good aspects of the culture.
Since culture changes, the change should be for the better and society should decide what those changes should be.
The home, the school and the church should guard against borrowing from other cultures things that are against the Philippine way of life.
Can you name what is good in Philippine culture and what is not?
LANGUAGE AND WRITING
Why is language important? What is the function of writing?
A man’s language is a reflection of the kind person he is, the family he comes from, the level of education he has attained, and an index to the behavior that may be expected from him. What is language?
Definition of Language
According to Keesing, language is “a vocal symbolism of speech, with its related bodily gestures and mechanical signals which give precision and finesse to communication.”
Beals and Hoijer define language as “a way of speaking, distinct in every culture.”
To Herskovitz, language is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which members of social group cooperate and interact by which the learning process is effectuated and a given of way of life achieved both through continuity and change.”
Antiquity of Language
Just exactly when language began is not known, but it must be very old. It probably is as old man’s artifacts and perhaps began with culture as language is part of culture. All human societies, primitive or civilized have languages. Today, there are numerous, different languages. The universality and diversity of language prove that it is very old, for language develops slowly. Similarities in vocabulary and grammar show a common origin. The differences in the modern languages must have taken a long time to develop.
Language grows and changes. For example, take the original Latin that was spoken in Rome. This spread to other countries where changes took place independently. Out of Latin evolved the Romance languages – Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and Romanian.
Linguistics is an important subdivision of anthropology. The anthropologist first studies the language of a group whose culture he wants to know. Language is needed to understand a society and its people and the role of language in their lives.
Significance and Function of Language
Language is very important. Without language, knowledge could have been maintained and accumulated. man has able to devise, continue, and change a great variety of cultural institutions of material and non-material nature through language. Language is a form of learned behavior by which people communicate with each other; this function is probably one of the most important, if not the most important function of language. According to Herskovitz, language is a vehicle of culture by which the culture is passed on from one generation to generation. Language is a means of cooperation through which people learn to play together and to work together. Problems are solved, not through physical activities alone, but through thought and discussion; and therefore problem solving becomes continuous through language, according to Shapiro. He also states that language enables man to share the experiences and thoughts of others and to pass on knowledge to succeeding generations.
From the anthropological point of view, language is a way of making people close to one another, of fostering the feeling of belongingness. There are as many words as there are languages. Therefore, to cement people of the world together, they should speak one language. All nations of the earth should learn one language and English seems to be it. Many countries studies English as a second language.
Elements of Language
According to Herskovitz, every language has three parts which are:
Phonemic system consisting of sounds
Combination of sounds into units that have distinct significance – vocabulary
Combination and recombination of number 2 into large units - grammar
According to Kessing, the parts of language are:
1. Set of sound signals, the articulatory of phonetic system phonology
2. Structural principles that put sounds signals in customary form – grammar or morphology (structure)
3. Set of meaning for signals and forms – (semantics); words embodying all 3 aspects of language in significant interrelation – vocabulary.
Kottak gives the following parts:
Phonology – study of sounds in human speech
Grammar – arrangement of sounds into longer sequence of speech or longer utterances
Lexicon – vocabulary or the meaning system of language
Summing up, then, all languages have a:
Well-defined system of speech sounds
Grammar – way of putting together words, phrases, sentences according to definite rules. (All societies, whether pre-litertae pygmies or advanced European groups, have grammar)
Vocabulary which increases with every new culture item.
Linguistic Structure
Analysis of the language shows that it is composed of:
Phonemes – similar sounds contrasting and mutually exclusive; the same sounds, but different in meaning ass the word strike
Phonemes – distinctive sounds, such as:
cat and pat – alike except in initial phonemes
cat and cot – alike except in middle phonemes
cat and cap – alike except in final phonemes
Morphemes – minimum significant unit forming a word or part of a word.
Ex. income from in and come.
Morphemes – composed of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. cat is a morpheme made up of phonemes c,a,t. Phonemes p,a,t make up the morpheme pat.
Morphology – combinations of words into linguistic forms. The combination of words into sentences following grammatical rules, such as subject (noun), predicate, (verb) and modifier (adverb or adjective).
Importance of the Study of Language
Language should be studied as it is an aspect of culture that differentiates man form animals. It should be used correctly as it is criterion that differences the educated from the uneducated.
Writing
A confusion arises with regard to language and writing as if the later is a special language. This may be explained by the fact that in school, children learn to read and write almost at the same time. Also , when we speak of literacy, we think of ability to read and write. Written language, however, is different from spoken language.
Writing, according to Beals and Hoijer, is “a set of techniques for the graphic representation of speech.” Herskovitz defines writing as “round-about speech or mechanical gesture; a series of graphic symbols (or symbol of symbols) which hold and store information more or less permanently according to the medium, apart from the individuals who are in communication.
Invention of Writing
Writing is a more recent invention than language. While language appeared more than a million years ago, that is, when man first acquired the rudiments of culture, the first written records in English were dated A.D. 900.
Writing was invented more than once in several places. The earliest invention was in Egypt, probably in the Bronze Age. This spread to Europe and Asia, and underwent many changes. The Chinese also developed their own system of writing, and so did the Indians of Central America at a much later date. The Aztecs of Mexico also had writing which was probably derived from the Central American Indian.
Development of Writing
Writing perhaps originated from drawing, which was as much part of culture as language Conventionalized pictographs may be regarded as the earliest form of writing. In fact, the life style of primitive people was gleaned from the pictures drawn on the walls of their cave dwellings. With time, the pictorial symbols became more and more abbreviated. This kind of writing was called pictograph or picture writing.
True writing perhaps began when conventionalized graphic symbols became associated with the sounds of a language. Symbols stood for words or particular combinations of speech sounds. This was called logographic writing and the symbols that represented words were called logograms. Logographs or logograms appeared in the Near East, in Chinese, and in Maya Writing. The problem of logographic writing was the difficulty of representing abstract ideas.
China continued the above trend and developed the traditional ideographic writing – a distinctive symbol for each idea. In modern Chinese writing, symbols are reduced to 214 basic characters which may be combined. To read and write Chinese fluently, it is necessary to memorize all these symbols. Most Chinese words are one syllable, but in English where long words have several syllables, this system of writing would be difficult.
Recognition of the phonetic factor made words that are the same in sound but different in meaning, represented by the same character. Phonetic characters that have a constant phonographic value are called phonograms. Phonograms came to be associated with syllables rather than whole words and were called syllabaries. Syllabaries became widespread. Mesopotamia (Iraq), Babylonia, and Sumeria wrote their ancient languages by means of a syllabary. They wrote on clay tablets with a stylus having a wedge-shaped edge end. The writing was called cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning “wedge”. Old Persian and Greek were also written in syllabic characters. Syllabic writing is still used in Japan today where the Japanese syllabary has about 65 characters.
The alphabetic system of writing developed around 1800 B.C. when Semitic – speaking peoples took the Egyptian syllabary of 24 characters and transformed these into consonant symbols. Alphabetic writing is further refinement of phonographic symbolism whereby a character becomes attached to a phoneme that conveys appropriate meanings.
Ex.: pear, pair, pare
The Phonenicians are credited with the invention of the alphabet where they substituted consonants for the 24 characters. The Greeks added vowels in place of the consonants they did not need. From the Greeks, the complete alphabet spread to Rome and to other European countries. This is the alphabet that we are using now.
Relation of Writing to Language
Writing has a history of its own and developed separately from language. They are not the same although they are related. There are two different aspects of culture. Language is a complex of patterns that govern or control speech while writing is the written symbol of speech. Writing is a recent invention compared to language. All societies having more or less the same level of development possess language, but not writing. Writing is found in advanced societies but may be lacking in primitive tribes.
Importance of Writing
Writing is essential to the highly complex civilization today. It makes possible long distance communication. It is a means of keeping records and preserving them for posterity. It is vital to the system of education, research, and to world culture. That is why scientists consider the invention of writing as the beginning of true civilization. However, learning, literacy, and education became widely spread only with the invention of the printing press.
Educational Implications
Since language is an aspect of culture, one should study the language well and speak it correctly.
The more languages a person knows, the better educated he is and the easier he can adjust to other peoples.
To understand people, it is necessary to know their language.
Knowing a people’s language is a means of fostering good public relations.
Since English is the language spoken throughout most of the world, one should study it well.
Reading books and magazines is one way of increasing one’s vocabulary.
A person should learn to write legibly and clearly as this is a mark of the well-educated.
Fluency in speaking and writing comes with practice; so one should take every opportunity to speak and write well.
What other implications can be made regarding language and writing?
RELIGION
What are some of the great religions of the world? What role does religion play in human affairs?
Another factor in man’s life that influences his behavior is religion. What is religion?
Definition of Religion
Pi-Sunyer and Salzmann define religion as “recognition of belief in some source or power that transcends human and is capable of assisting or harming them.”
Anthony F.C. Wallace gives this definition – “a kind of human behavior which can be classified as belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces.”
Beals and Hoijer define religion as “ response to man’s needs for an organized conception of the universe, for mechanism that will allay his anxieties concerning his inability to predict and understand events that do not conform to natural law.”
To Herskovitz, religion is the control of the universe; means by which man maintains himself in the scheme of things.
From the foregoing definitions, certain characteristics of religion are evident, such as: (1) belief in the supernatural which is all powerful, (2) an influence on human behavior, (3) an explanation for what is unexpected. Examples of situations or occurrences that cannot be explained by science and where religion is used to provide the answers are:
A healthy individual who had no previous history of heart disease suddenly has a heart attack and dies.
A person who had cancer as shown by x-ray suddenly shows no trace of the disease (by x-ray) after a visit to Lourdes shrine, France.
An out-of-reason typhoon in April destroys a crop.
A very good husband, rich and good-looking, is deserted by his wife.
Nature of Religion
In some societies there is a belief in a generalized and impersonal force, influence, or power that exists invisibly throughout the universe and may be possessed to a greater or lesser degree by gods, men, the forces of nature (sun, moon, rain, or thunder) and natural objects such as pools, rivers, trees, stones. A concept of impersonal power exists. In other societies, there is a belief in gods, spirits, and other personalized supernaturals. Some tribes believe in animism where the spirit continues to exist after the death or destruction of the body. The spirits are supposed to control events in the material world and in man’s life. This led to the beliefs in souls and in a future state, which is part of the Catholic religion today.
Folk or Primitive Religion
Where or how religion started in not very clear, but even the primitive tribes had some kind of religion. American Indians worshipped supernatural beings. The Aztecs of Mexico worshipped a god. The city-state of Athens worshipped the goddess Athena. The Greeks and the Romans had their gods and goddesses. The Roman emperor and the Egyptian pharaoh were regarded as deities in times of classical antiquity. The Japanese emperor was venerated as descendant of the sun-god before World War II.
Variety of Religious
Today many different kinds of religions abound in the world. The Christian religions are composed of Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox (Greek) Catholics and Judaoe-Christianity. The non-Christian religions consist of:
Islam-Mohammedan
Buddhism
Confucianism
Hinduism
Zoroastrianism
Jewish
Shintoism
Animism
There are many things that are common in all religion rather than differences. The golden rule is part of most religions.
Belief in Most Societies Regarding Religion
Whatever religion they belong to, different societies have common beliefs. These are:
Religion does things for people. Most prayers ask for something that people want done for them.
Religion has to do with the powers of the universe, the range and intensity of these powers, and the manner in which they influence the lives of people. Religion influences not only the life style of people, but also their behavior. The Moslems do not eat pork. In India, the cow is not only not eaten, but it is venerated. Most Catholics do not eat meat on Fridays, especially on Good Friday. Seventh Day Adventists are mostly vegetarians.
There are methods by which these powers may be enlisted in behalf of man, not only as benevolent guardians, but also as agents that may help man achieve certain ends. Some of the methods employed are prayers, masses, sacrifices, abstinence, apostolic work, etc. Christians usually make sacrifices and penance during Holy Week. Novelas are a common means employed by Catholics to request something. Some have masses said for many occasions. Going to Mecca is to the Moslems what going to Jerusalem is to the Christians. It probably represents the nearest thing to heaven on this earth.
Instruments of Religion
To reach ends desired by man, different instrument of religion are used. There is the ritual, which is prescribed way of performing religious acts. Various religions have different rituals. Examples are the rain dance performed by American Indians, the temple dance, dance to the gods by Bestal Virgins. Praying, singing sacred songs, making sacrifices, preparing offerings, making the sign of the cross, are other rituals. Prayer may be a devout petition, a supplication to an object of worship, a thanksgiving, or a spiritual communion with God. A ceremony is a number of interconnected and related rituals, performed at a given time. Examples of ceremonies are:
Sunday morning service
Marriage ceremony
Baptismal rites and confirmation rites
Puberty rites
Blessing of a house
Processions to a patron saint
Taboos are prohibitions. Different religions have certain taboos, which are ignored, are supposed to bring down misfortune on the violator. Examples, of taboos are those on food and incest. There is also the taboo on prohibition of sexual intercourse while the mother is nursing the baby. Sometimes this taboo may act to maintain population level.
Religious Practitioners
In the educational field, the teacher is the agent of instruction. In the religious world who are the leaders or practitioners? They are:
The Shaman – man or who serves society as part-time religious practitioner – usually in primitive societies.
The priest or minister – full-time religious practitioner who gets power through association with an organized religious group.
Priest are prepared by intensive training unlike the shaman who may be the result of inspiration or possession by a god or spirit.
The other word religions also have their leaders or practitioners.
Use of Religion
Religion is used to:
Explain events or situations that defy comprehension (meaningless, contradictory or inexplicable)
Provide comfort in times of stress and anxiety.
Set guidelines for conduct of human affairs and furnish a sense of common purpose for members of a social group.
Role or Function of Religion are:
Provide an organized picture of the universe and establish orderly relationships between man and his surroundings.
Reduce fears and anxieties and give man not only a feeling of security in the uncertain present, but the hope as well of a tolerable future.
Reflect close and intimate relations with the world of the supernatural and also with animals, plants, and other aspects of nature.
Reinforce and maintain cultural values.
Few religions except Judaism and Christianity are linked to ethics and morality.
Support and emphasize particular culturally defined standards of behavior.
Preserves knowledge through rituals and ceremony.
Ceremonies are dramas that symbolically re-enact important procedures.
Rituals and ceremonies together with uniform beliefs, contribute to social participation and solidarity.
individual participation in such occasions bring emotional satisfaction.
ceremonies were as a social function which develop social cohesion and group solidarity.
Also create and maintain divisions.
Instrument of change – Ex. Jesus Christ’s preaching of love
Educational Implications
It is important for every one to have a religion in view of the role that religion play’s in one’s life.
Since religion influences behavior, one should choose one’s religion wisely.
Since the nature and function of all religions are the same, there should be tolerance of all religions.
One should study one’s religion well and live it.
Apply the teachings of religion to self, family, community, and the world.
Make your own implications regarding your religion.
THE ARTS
Why is art important? What are its functions?
Nature and Definition of Art
If religion stems from a psychological need in the individual, perhaps the same thing may be said of the arts. Art is a part of culture and dates back to antiquity. It is present in all societies although not at the same rate of development. That art is universal is probably the best proof that it satisfies a deep psychological need common to all people.
What is art? The dictionary defines art as a production or expression of what is beautiful or appealing; an esthetic expression. According to Beals, art is “an activity that over and above its utilitarian values brings satisfaction both to the artist and to those who participate in his work as beholders, audience, or collaborators.” This esthetic exponent differentiates art from other aspects of culture.
The earliest stages of art were realistic or representative of expression. Later, art became geometric, symbolic, and decorative in expression. The tendency is to change toward progressive simplification and conventionalization. Painting is a good example. In the beginning, paintings were made to appear as close as possible to the original as shown by landscapes and portraits of people. Now, modern painting has become symbolic and representational ass shown by cubistic painting. The works of Picazzo and Edades illustrate this. The trend now is toward impressionistic painting.
Functions of Art
Of what use is art? The following are the functions of art:
Art gives esthetic satisfaction to artists, performers, audience or participants. A person sings for the mere pleasure it gives him. People dance because they enjoy doing it. Watching a ballet performance or listening to a symphonic concert gives pleasure. Looking at a painting may evoke pleasant emotions.
Art serves as a medium for the communication of ideas, attitudes and values. The degree of communication depends on how much the conventions and symbols use are understood by the audience. For instance, in our society, a halo or a ring over the head of a figure symbolizes a saint. Some primitive groups may not understand this. In Chinese and Japanese plays, the actors and actresses wear masks. The audience should know which mask represents the hero, the heroine, and the villain. A room in a stage drama has only three walls. Sometimes, all walls are dispensed with in the arena style of drama.
Art conserves and reinforces beliefs, customs, attitudes and values. This function is possessed by all arts, but it is more evident in literary and pictorial arts. The religious art in the architecture of churches, the religious scenes, and the images of saints create emotional and intellectual atmosphere needed for religious exercises; serve to remind one in what he should believe in; and when in drama form, serve for instructional purpose (or propaganda).
As stated above, Art may be used for instructional purpose (or propaganda). Examples of these are the mystery plays and the religious dramas coupled with dance that were given in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the Philippines, the “Moro-moro” plays where Christians vanquished the Mohammedans, were used to spread Christianity. Schools made use of Christmas plays, pageants, myths and folk tales to develop certain attitudes and values. Today, mass media like the motion picture, is a very good vehicle for changing attitudes, instilling values, and solving social problems.
Art reveals its relationship to society and shows how art forms are transmitted through time and space. The state of the art in a society is a reflection of the attitude of that society toward art and its stage of progress. The collection of art works in the group will not only give a history of art development but also show how this has been transmitted from generation to generation.
Art is a cultural tradition. The techniques used, the choice of subject matter, the preferences or emphasis on certain art, the functions of art, the attitudes toward art take the attitude toward paintings of nude. There are many of these in the art galleries of Europe. Some conservative societies may frown on paintings of nudes and this may influence painters.
Music
Music is the art that best shows the effect of cultural tradition in deciding what is approved and desirable, both socially and individually. However, what is pleasing I one society may not be so in another. Chinese music sounds queer to Western eras and so does music of primitive tribes.
Music probably originated in song rather than in devised instruments. The earliest forms of rhythmical activity that were accompanied by singing were probably rocking infants, walking, or repeated regular work movements. Music did away with the monotony of labor and acted as stimulant.
Occassions for music among non-literate people are:
Lullabies composed by mothers which are learned by children and sung while playing.
Songs by young men to amuse and entertain their sweethearts.
Serenades outside the tipi (tent) to the loved one.
Sacred songs in time of personal crisis, ceremonies, and rituals.
Martial songs before and after war.
Songs of praise and mourning songs.
The evolution of music passed through two stages. The first stage was singing which went through the range of the human voice. The second stage was musical expression by fashioned instruments.
The history of music shows that what was considered “barbaric” in one era may be accepted later. An example is jazz music which was not accepted when it first appeared. Now, it is very popular. Primitive music has rhythm, but lacks melody.
Today some modern music seems to revert to rhythm, but lacks melody.
Musical instruments developed much later than singing. The flute and piccolo-like instruments made of wood, bamboo or bone were found in most regions. There were also a few percussion instruments like rattle, tambourine, and drums. Later, xylophone – like instrument of wood and bamboo were also developed. In the Old World, complex instruments capable of various effects and musical styles, were invented. Stringed instruments like the multistringed lyre and cithara spread from the Near East to the Old World.
The major factors in the history of modern European music were:
Writing, symbolic representation, and analysis of music.
Cumulative advances in the technology of string instruments.
Development of harmony.
Dance
The dance is a universal feature of human society. It is found in all groups as the human body has the same nervous system and muscle equipment no matter what race. Hence, dance styles can be as complex and beautiful among the primitives as among the civilized. The dance which may display superb esthetic quality is not a rarity primitive society.
The different forms of the dance are religious or magico-ceremonial dancing, play dancing, dramatic and symbolic dancing. The dance has a social and cultural function.
The dance originated far back in time. In primitive society, the dancer’s body was not confined. Now, the higher the economic level the more progressive and intriguing the dance regalia because recently, dance themes became more entertaining rather than religious or magico-ceremonial.
Poetry and Pose
Although prose and poetry are related, they are not the same. Prose is ordinary, matter of fact language. Poetry is beautiful thought in beautiful language, rhythmically expressed. Poetry is difficult to separate from song. The poems of primitive people were short and chanted.
Prose, oral and written, is found among all peoples. The types of prose found are:
Narratives, which, like songs, are universal and are composed of –
Myths – stories of another world that deal with gods, spirits and other supernaturals; usually concerned with origins of the universe and its aspects such as fire, food, animals, plants, death, illness, society, ceremonials, and rituals.
Legends – events in the present world or an earlier time with men as actors; more worldly in content although they may include what is wonderful, awesome, and supernatural.
Proverbs and riddles – contains wisdom of the group. These are not as universal in non-literate societies.
Rhymes which are found only in literary productions.
Dramas and oratory.
How did oral literature come about? With the development of language, events were described and narrated. Natural phenomena such as the seasons, phases of the moon, path of the sun, comets, shooting stars, tides, storms, lightning, thunder, floods, forest, fires, and fogs were treated allegorically and became the origin of folk tales.
Folktales perform certain functions, such as:
To entertain
To know the rationale behind customs and geographical features.
To teach moral lessons.
To direct minor educational functions.
Art in the Individual
The production of art involves two factors:
The Culture and the period in history in which the artist participates.
The people with whom he lives and works – critics, collaborators, friends and relatives.
Art is produced by individuals although many may collaborate a in a dramatic production, a ballet, a symphonic concert, a movie production, etc. Many forms, actions, and patterns may make up a completed production, but the act of creating can be traced to an individual. It is erroneous to think that a work of art is the exclusive production of one person or that a movie is the sum of individual contributions. In a painting, there is the painter and the model. A poem is composed by the poet after being inspired by some one. The artist gives expression to sentiments, and ideas that arise through his interaction with others. Hence, social and cultural setting is important.
The artist may work in strict isolation, but he is always subject to influences from his culture, historical period, and people with whom he lives. An example is the narration of myths and legends wherein the story teller adapts his tale to reactions of the audience. This is also true in singing.
In primitive society, the individual is not given ass much prominence as a modern society where the painter or novelist may become famous. Hence, in primitive society, art is designated as folk art.
Educational Implications
Art should be included in the curriculum of the elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
The second should try to find out the kind of artistic inclination of the child and try to develop this.
In order to give outlets for different individual talents, the school should offer varied extra-curricular activities, such as Glee Club, Dramatics, Dance Troupe, Rondalla, etc.
Field trips to museums, libraries, etc. should be sponsored by the school.
Artists may be invited by the school to give demonstrated lectures so that children and youth may have first hand experience with different art forms.
Participation in singing contests, declamation and oratorical contest and other contests should be encouraged by the school.
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