This is an Educational blog maintained by SABARISH P, (MSc Physics, MEd, NET), Assistant Professor in Physical Science Education. Contact : pklsabarish@gmail.com

Saturday 9 March 2024

METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH


Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 
 
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com 

Introduction
The growth in qualitative research is a well-noted fact in the field of educational research. It is Concerned with the opinions, experiences, and feelings of individuals producing subjective data and it does not attempt at analyzing it into quantifiable or measurable components as in Quantitative research. It takes into consideration the totality of phenomenon. It seeks understanding, extrapolation, and explanation to similar situations. Education as a discipline has wide base with diverse concerns, thus many of its problems certainly be meaningfully investigated by means of different approaches including both qualitative and quantitative researches. Qualitative data are verbal or other symbolic materials. The general methods used in the qualitative research for the holistic study of a phenomenon are highlighted here.

Qualitative research is a form of inquiry that analyzes information conveyed through language and behavior in natural settings. It is used to capture expressive information not conveyed in quantitative data about beliefs, values, feelings, and motivations that underlie behaviors. Qualitative methods derive from a variety of disciplines and traditions. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples. Qualitative research is a term with varying meanings in educational research. Qualitative research studies typically include ethnographies, case studies, and generally descriptive studies. They often are called ethnographies, but these are somewhat more specific. Ethnography is just one form that qualitative research may take. Ethnography as a form of naturalistic inquiry is a major approach to qualitative research. Ethnography is a semi structured way of learning about people and their culture.8 With specific questions in mind, ethnographic researchers immerse themselves in an environment to discover the meanings, conventions of behavior, and ways of thinking important to individuals of a group as they emerge in unrehearsed encounters.


A case study may indeed be viewed as ethnography; however, the investigator may have set out to answer a particular question rather than to describe a group or scene as a whole. It uses observational techniques to examine a social unit as a whole. Data analysis of case study research focuses on the holistic description of the cases including individuals, communities, institutions etc.
Some qualitative approaches use technical methods (such as statistical content analysis) to determine the significance of findings, while others rely on researchers thoughtful reflection. Once a question or issue has been selected, the choice of qualitative methods falls roughly into the categories of observations, interviews, and document and artifact analysis. Qualitative methods, however, form continua on various dimensions, and researchers espouse many views of how methods may be categorized and conceptualized. One advantage of qualitative methods in exploratory research is that use of open-ended questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words, rather than forcing them to choose from fixed responses, as quantitative methods do. Open-ended questions have the ability to evoke responses that are:
• Meaningful and culturally salient to the participant
• Unanticipated by the researcher
• Rich and explanatory in nature
 
Pelto and Pelto (1978) in their frequently cited text on anthropological research methods remind us that the human investigator is the primary research instrument. These authors categorize methods as either verbal or nonverbal techniques. Verbal techniques include participant observation, questionnaires, and various forms of structured and unstructured interviews. Nonverbal techniques include observations and measures of interactions; proxemics, kinesics, and research involving videotaped observations; use of various types of technical equipment for collecting data; content analysis; and analysis of artifacts and records. Pelto and Pelto (1978) add that methods may be described as having an "emic" or insider's view, as in participant observation, versus an "etic" or outsider's view, as in nonparticipant stream-of-behavior analyses. As in all qualitative research, it is also assumed that educational technology researchers will use and refine methods with the view that the methods used vary in their degree of interactiveness with subjects. Some of the general methods in conducting qualitative research are:

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is considered a type of qualitative methodology. The focus of grounded theory approach is on the development of inductive,”bottom up “theory that is grounded directly in the empirical data. In grounded theory, the data may come from observations, interviews, and videotape or document analysis, and, as in other qualitative research, these data may be considered strictly qualitative or may be quantitative. The purpose of the methodology is to develop theory, through an interactive process of data analysis and theoretical analysis, with verification of hypotheses ongoing throughout the study.
A recent example of a grounded-theory approach in an educational technology study is that of Oliver's (1992). This research investigated and described the activities used in a university televised distance education system, analyzing the use of camera techniques as they related to interaction in class. Oliver videotaped hours of two-way video instruction and analyzed the amount and kind of classroom interactions that occurred. She also examined and described the various television shots and transitions used. Outside observers also coded the videotapes. Using grounded-theory techniques, Oliver used the data she transcribed and the emerging categories of data to create a theory of televised instruction. The theory involved the use of close-up camera techniques and the "clean-cut" transition to enhance interaction.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a qualitative method frequently used in social science research. It is reasonable that fine educational technology research can be conducted using participant observation techniques, with somewhat limited research questions. Not every phenomenon can possibly be recorded. Most qualitative observational studies rely on the researcher's writing down what occurs in the form of extensive field notes. The researcher then analyzes these notes soon after observations are carried out, noting patterns of behaviors and events and phenomena to investigate in further observations. Still, the researcher is the instrument in most participant observations and, being human, cannot observe and record everything. Therefore, in most educational research studies, the investigator determines ahead of time what will be observed and recorded, guided but not limited by the research questions.
In an example of a limited participant observation case study, Robinson (1994) observed classes using "Channel One" in a Midwestern middle school. While Robinson was not there for more than one semester, she did observe and participate in the class discussions for many hours of classroom instruction, as well as interview about 10% of the students. She did not focus on all school activities, or on all the categories of interaction within the classrooms, but focused her observations and field notes on the use of the televised news show and the reaction to it from students, teachers, administrators, and parents.

Nonparticipant Observation

Nonparticipant observation is one of several methods for collecting data considered to be relatively unobtrusive. Nonparticipant observation is often used to study focused aspects of a setting, in order to answer specific questions within a study. This method can yield extensive detailed data, over many subjects and settings, if desired, in order to search for patterns, or to test hypotheses developed as a result of using other methods, such as interviews. It can thus be a powerful tool in triangulation. Observational data may be coded into categories, frequencies tabulated, and relationships analyzed, yielding quantitative reports of results. Many qualitative studies using observational techniques are case studies, and many in educational technology have involved the use of computers in schools. One such study was conducted by Dana (1994), who investigated how the pedagogical beliefs of one first-grade teacher related to her classroom curriculum and teaching practices. The teacher was an experienced and creative computer user who modeled the use of computers for her peers. Many hours of interviews and observations of the classes were made. Classroom videotapes were coded by outside reviewers who were trained to identify examples of the teacher's beliefs, exemplified in classroom practice. Her study provided insights into the methodology and teaching and learning in a computer-rich environment. She suggested changes that schools could make to encourage teachers to become better able to incorporate technology into their classrooms.

Interviews

In contrast with the relatively noninteractive, nonparticipant observation methods described earlier, interviews represent a classic qualitative research method that is directly interactive (see 41.2.2). Interview techniques, too, vary in how they may be classified, and again, most vary in certain dimensions along continua, rather than being clearly dichotomous. For instance, Bernard (1988) describes interview techniques as being structured or unstructured to various degrees. He describes the most informal type of interviewing, followed by unstructured interviewing that has some focus. Next, Bernard mentions semi structured interviewing and finally structured interviews, typically involving what he calls an interview schedule, which others call interview protocols, that is, sets of questions, or scripts. Fontana and Frey (1994) expand this classification scheme by noting that interviews may be conducted individually or in groups. Again, exemplifying modern trends in qualitative research, these authors add that unstructured interviews now may include oral histories, and creative and postmodern interviewing, the latter of which may include use of visual media and polyphonic interviewing, that is, almost verbatim reporting of respondents' words, as well as gendered interviewing in response to feminist concerns. An interview is a form of conversation in which the purpose is for the researcher to gather data that address the study's goals and questions.
Denzin NK, Lincoln YS (eds.). Participant observations may choose to conduct a series of relatively unstructured interviews that seem more like conversations with the respondents. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) summarize these ideas:
Good interviews are those in which the subjects are at ease and talk freely about their points of view.... Good interviews produce rich data filled with words that reveal the respondents' perspectives (p. 97).

Document and Artifact Analysis

Beyond nonparticipant observation, many unobtrusive methods exist for collecting information about human behaviors. These fall roughly into the categories of document and artifact analyses, but overlap with other methods. For instance, the verbal or nonverbal behavior streams produced during videotaped observations may be subjected to intense microanalysis to answer an almost unlimited number of research questions.
Content analysis of prose in any form may also be considered to fall into this artifact-and-docurnent category of qualitative methodology. Pelto and Pelto (1978) refer to analysis of such cultural materials as folktales, myths, and other literature, although educational technologists would more likely analyze, for example, content presented in learning materials. More information about content analysis given by Manning and Cullum-Swan (1994).

Conclusion

Qualitative research has the advantage of studying a phenomenon in a holistic perspective. It is most suitable in the study of human behavior which is fluid, dynamic and situational. It utilizes flexible design. Purposive sampling is the dominant strategy in qualitative research. Thus the above discussed general methods can be used for studying a phenomenon in holistic perspective. Moreover, with increased diversification in the context of education, There is a need for adopting multi-method approach, involving both qualitative and quantitative paradigms to the methodology of educational studies.

References

Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications, 2000

Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. Educational research: An introduction

(5th ed.). New York: Longman,1989

Koul, Lokesh. Methodology of Educational research.Shimla: Vikas Publications,2010

  

Monday 4 March 2024

VIRTUAL REALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

VIRTUAL REALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Prepared by
 Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 
 
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com 

Virtual reality is a computer based technology which gives the illusion of being immersed in a three dimensional space with the ability to interact with this 3D space. There has been an increased interest in virtual reality which has led to some exciting new developments for society as a whole. VR has extremely wide application in higher education. VR can make the artificial as realistic as, and even more realistic than, the real. Display technology will continue to improve, so VR will become ever more realistic virtually. The recent technological developments in computer hardware and software now make it feasible to look at VR as an important teaching aid. The capabilities and possibilities for VR technology may open doors to new experiences in learning.VR sometimes can be even more powerful than the real world since it allows almost anybody to feel and sense the forbidden world.VR enables learners to view, touch, hear and interact with life like objects in real time. VR provides a firsthand approach to learning without the hazards of dealing with the real environment.VR can make the artificial as realistic as, and even more realistic than, the real.

VIRTUAL REALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Introduction

Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organisation and techniques. There arrives a training technology that causes a realization that "this changes everything." Such a technology is virtual reality (VR). It has been stated that interaction in a virtual environment can be a valuable substitute for real experience(Chittaro & Ranon, 2007).VR is simply an illusory environment, engineered to give users the impression of being somewhere other than where they are. As you sit safely in your home, VR can transport you to a football game, a rock concert, a sub marine exploring the depths of the ocean, or a space station orbiting Jupiter.

What is Virtual Reality?

Virtual reality a term used to describe a 3D, computer generated environment which can be explored and interacted with by a person. That person becomes the part of the virtual world or is immersed within the environment and is able to manipulate objects or perform a series of actions.Virtual Reality is best described as an illusion of reality created by a computer system. A person enters a VR by putting on special glass and headphones attached to a computer system running the VR programme. These devices immerse the user with the sights and sounds of virtual world.

Features of Virtual Reality

1)VR allows the person to view 3D images 2) They change as the person moves around their environment which corresponds with the change in their field of vision. 3) Virtual environment is both realistic and enjoyable. 4) It provides appropriate responses. 5) It is a natural, free flowing form of interaction which will results in a memorable experience

Functions of Virtual Reality

1)To make learning fun and interesting. 2) To provide motivation.3) To retain the knowledge gained.4) To aware the performance of learners.5) To form the relationships with learners.6) To present content

Types of Virtual Reality Devices

Different types of virtual reality devices are mentioned below.

1.Head mounted displays are devices that typically look like a helmet, which have a small video screen placed at a short distance in front of eyes. 2.Gloves contain various types of sensors to allow a user to interact with the visual VR environment. The software co-ordinates the interaction of the gloved hand and visual display. Using it, a user can see objects in the virtual world and able to pick up object and place it somewhere else. 3.VR simulators are already being used in films and TV industry. It traces the body movements through small dots attached to the body suit at joint positions (wrists, ankles, elbows, face etc) of a student actor 4.Hap tics, the VR motion chair can be used with a joystick and a steering wheel and will work with any pc game. One who uses the motion chair, often have the feeling that he is in another world. 5.Video eye wares are fully adjustable, light weight and comfortable and it will also connect directly in to an iPod video.

Types of Virtual Reality Models

Actually there is numerous kind of virtual reality but most can be classified into one of the following three categories: Desktop VR, Video Mapping VR, and Immersive VR.

 Desktop VR: Desktop-based virtual reality involves displaying a 3-dimensional virtual world on a regular desktop display without use of any specialized movement-tracking equipment. It involves a traditional desktop set up in which the student explores a virtual environment using a computer, keyboard and mouse. Modern computer games are example for this type.

Video Mapping VR: It uses cameras to project an image of the user into the computer program, thus creating a 2D computer character. Although fully immersed in the environment, it is difficult to interact with the user’s surroundings.

 Immersive VR: It uses a HMD to project video directly in front of the user’s eyes, plays audio directly into the user’s ears, and can track the whereabouts of the user’s head. Then a data glove (or data suit) is used to track movements of the user’s body and then duplicate them in the virtual environment. When the user cannot distinguish between what is real and what is not, then immersive VR has succeeded.

Advantages of Virtual Reality

1).VR is more natural.2).Virtual Reality is a great social leveller; it may find a common ground across differences in age, culture, and linguistic orientation.3).People will be drawn together by similar interests instead of purely by geographic location. 4).VR is more effective and productive, and more enjoyable.5).VR provides a multi sensory experience.6).The VR world can also be used to ensure the physical safety

Applications in Higher Education

VR has extremely wide application in higher education, training and research. Flexibility provided by VR will be a major attraction to the educational community. It is easy to imagine a time when laboratories of chemistry, physics and engineering are replaced by a number of VR systems. The applications of VR includes architecture, sports, medicines, arts, entertainment and many areas of curriculum such as Maths, English, Science, History, Geography etc.

Conclusion

Education system has remarkable changes in recent years. Many reforms were sought, formulated, implemented, reviewed and deliberated upon. In future, it may be practical to use VR to safely fly a remote control aircraft into a hurricane or volcanic eruption to take scientific readings. It would also be applied to remote controlled submarines that explore the sea looking for oil and mineral resources or perhaps exploring other planets such as Mars & Titan. VR can’t substitute for real human contact. Nevertheless it may allow students to enjoy educational concepts in an interactive mode and may help them to move on to higher goals.

References

Nachimuthu , K. (2011). Virtual Reality Enhanced in Teacher Education. BRICS journal of Educational Research ,( 2011), 1(2),133-136.

Noushad Hussain. (2012) .Avatar: A New Web Based Virtual technology for Social Learning in Higher Education. University News, (2012), 50(11), 15 -23.

            Chittaro, L.,Ranon,R.(2007).Web 3D technologies in learning, education and training:Motivations, issues, opportunities. Computers & education journal,49(2),3-18.


BLENDED LEARNING- THE ESSENCE OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING

 

BLENDED LEARNING- THE ESSENCE OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING

Prepared by

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 
 
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com 

ICT or Information and Communication Technology has pervaded the fields of education. ICT has become an integral part of today’s teaching-learning process. The students can do self learning using enormous potentials of internet and providing them with several on-line exercises. Educational institutes realized that different methods could work better under different situations among diverse type of students .This mixed approach of using other methods along with the conventional face-to-face method is blended learning. As a result, blended learning is the new trends in teaching-learning process. Blended learning is the convergence of one or more teaching methods or face-to-face (traditional teaching) and e-learning method to enhance learning experience by integrating advantages in two pedagogies. Blended Learning can be thought of as a pedagogical approach that combines the effectiveness and socialization opportunities of classroom with the technologically advanced active learning possibilities of the on-line environment. Blended learning should be approach not merely as a temporal construct, but rather as a fundamental redesign of the instructional model. This paper focuses the elements of blended learning and its advantages over on-learning environments. And also describes the levels in which the blended learning studies occur and pointing out the characteristics of effectiveness of blended learning system in teaching learning process. 

Blended learning

This is a mix of the traditional face-to-face teaching approach and the self-directed online approach.

Introduction

In recent years the term “e-Learning “has emerged as a result of the integration of ICT in educational field. As a result the system of online learning has been largely used in higher education. Learning environment presents some disadvantages such as inhibiting the socialization process of individual resulting in lack of face-to-face communications: a new environment has surfaced. This new environment is termed as Blended Learning, hybrid or mixed learning. As per the words of Graham (2005)”Blended learning is a blending of different learning method, techniques and resources and applying them in an interactively meaningful learning environment. Learners should have easy access to different learning resources in order to apply the knowledge and skills they learn under the supervision and support of teacher inside and outside the classroom. This approach will combine face to face instruction with computer-mediated instruction. It also applies science or IT activities with the assistance of innovative educational technologies using computer, cellular or I phones, sky TV channels and other electronic media .Poornima (2002) has defined Blended Learning as “The term Blended Learning is used to describe a solution that combines several different delivery methods such as collaboration software, Web-Based courses, and EPSS and knowledge management practices. Blended learning also used to describe learning that mixes various events-based activities, including face-to-face classrooms, live e-learning and self-paced instruction”.



What is Blended Learning?

The integration of face-to-face and on-line learning to help enhance the classroom experience and extent learning through the innovative use of information and communication technology. Blended strategies enhance student engagement and learning through on-line activities in the course to the curriculum, and include effectiveness and efficiencies by reducing lecture time.

Ingredients of Blended Learning

Live events: Synchronous, teachers-led learning environment in which all learners participated at the same time .It can be in real classroom or can be virtual.

Self-paced learning: Recorded live events, internet-based or CD-ROM based, which help the learners to learn at his own pace.

Collaboration: It implies a more dynamic communication and interaction among many learners that beings about knowledge sharing.

Assessment: It is both live and on-line measure of learner’s knowledge to determine prior knowledge as well as to measure learning transfer.

Performance support: There are reference materials that enhance learning retention and transfer. It may be printable references, downloaded multimedia learning objects, documentation etc.

Elements of Blended Learning

As per learners demand and expected learning outcomes the Blended Learning experience is designed by the experts.Bersin and associates (2004) have identified the following elements related to Blended learning: Instructor-led lecture/training , Webinars , Web-based Courseware , Simulations , CD-ROM based Courseware , Rapid e-learning , Courseware , Internet delivered videos , Electronic performance supporting system , Off-line videos , Video conference , Collaboration system (chat room, discussion board) , Conference calls , Job aids ,Web books , Books , On the job exercise.

Blending at different levels

Blended learning environment differ from place to place there are some similarities among them. According to the handbook of Blended learning all blended learning studies occur at any one of the following levels which are the Activity-Level, Course-level, Program-level and institutional- level.

Activity-Level Blending: Blended at activity level occurs when a learning activity contains both face-to-face and computed assisted components like interactive white boards.

Course-level blending: It involves a combination of distinct face-to-face and computer assisted activities use as part of a course.

Program-level blending: Blending at program-level often entails one of two models: a model in which the participants choose a mix between face-to-face courses and on-line courses or one in which the combination between the two is prescribed by the program.

Institutional-level blending: Some institutions have made an organizational commitment to blending face-to-face and computer assisted instructions.

Blended learning system is effective in the teaching-learning process for the following characteristics: 1) Pedagogical richness 2) Access to knowledge 3) Social interaction 4) Personal agencies 5) Cost-effectiveness 6) Ease of revision.

Advantages of blended learning over on-line learning environments

Increased communication , Engagement of face-to-face communication , Sense of community, Improved academic performance , Collaborative tasks , Adequate feedback , Active participation , Providing help , Fun and practical manner of teaching and learning etc.

Conclusion

Blended learning refers to the combination of two or more instructional methods. The aim of blended learning is to combine the advantages of face-to-face classroom learning with the advantages of e-learning to enhance the overall learning environment. The key aspect of the successful blended learning approaches is to evaluate what aspects of a course of study are better-suited using internet technologies.

REFERENCES:

  1. Deepak Halam. (2005).Blended learning Journal of Educational Technology,2(1)

  2. Nageswara Rao. (2006).Effectiveness of Blended Learning Journal of Educational Technology,3(3)

  3. Augustus Richard,J, Muthaiah N, and Helen Bond. (2012). Can Blended Learning Enhance Teaching Skills? University News, 50(11), 1-6.

  4. Mohana Sundaram, K & Sivasankar, A. (2010). Blended Learning: A New Horizon University News, 48(03),1-4.

  5. Indrajeet Dutta, & Neeti Dutta. (2012). Blended Learning A Pedagogical Approach to Teach in Smart Classrooms. Edutracks, 11(10), 6-10.


 

Friday 24 March 2023

Anthropological Foundations of Education

 

Anthropological Foundations of Education

(Full module in one post) 

Prepared by

Sabarish P

(MSc Physics, MEd, NET) 
 
Contact: pklsabarish@gmail.com 


Anthropology was derived from the Greek word anthrope meaning man and logy meaning science. The literal meaning of anthropology then is science of man. It is the study of mankind. The dictionary defines anthropology as the science that treats of the origin, development (physical, intellectual, moral, etc.) and specially the cultural development, customs, beliefs, etc. of man. Briefly, Herskovitz defines anthropology as “the science of man and his works.” According to Jacobs and Stern, anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on earth.


Actually, anthropology studies man as a member of the animal kingdom and studies his behavior as a member of society. Man is unique in the animal kingdom because (1) he walks erect, (2) he uses his hands for handling, and (3) he has a more complex brain. (4) He is also unique in the field of behavior for the following reasons:


  1. He possesses tools and other material artifacts.

  2. He has complex techniques for getting and preparing food.

  3. He has social and political organization.

  4. He has a system of religious beliefs and rituals.

  5. He communicates by means of language.


Divisions of Anthropology


Anthropology may be classified as physical and cultural. Physical anthropology deals with the study of man as a product of the evolutionary process. It is connected with man’s bodily structures. It studies and analyzes human population. Cultural anthropology deals with man’s behavior and with ways human beings carry out the activities of daily living. The diversity of human behavior is seen in: food habits, ways food is cooked, habits of dress and ornaments and relations with in-laws. Cultural anthropology has the following sub-divisions:


  1. Archaeology which deals with ancient cultures and past phases of modern civilization based on documents, paintings, stone carvings, etc. It is the study of antiquity by the excavation and description of remains. Through diggings and fossils remains, the age of man has been established. In 1654, according to Archbishop Ussher of Ireland, the first man as well as the universe, was created 4004 B.C. Archaeology has also established different eras or periods of the earth when living things appeared, more than 1,500 million years ago. In geology, these eras are: (1) the Archezoic when primitive forms of life appeared, (2) the Protozoic when early life forms increased, and (3) Paleozoic when fish, amphibians, and other marine forms appeared, and (4) the Mesozoic when huge reptiles predominated. This was also called the Age of Reptiles. (5) The Cenozoic era followed in which there were more advanced forms of animals.


The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods: (1) the Tertiary or Age of Mammals and the Quartenary, or age when modern forms of man first appeared. The Quartenary is divided into (1) Pleistocene (Ice Age) period when man first appeared and culture began and (2) Holocene period. Discovery of stone tools, implements and houses has held to the period known as Stone Age.


  1. Ethnology treats of and describes diverse cultures and explains similarities and differences. It deals with the sub-divisions of mankind, their origins, relations, speech, institutions, etc. Mankind is divided into five races – white, black, yellow, red and brown. Within each race, there are subdivisions. For example the Americans, German, French, Spanish, Scandinavians, etc. all belong to the white race, but they have their own culture and physical characteristics, and they have different levels of civilization. As to the origin of man, there are several versions. There are also many different places where the bones of pre-historic man were found.

  2. Linguistics, which is concerned with man’s language, non-literate or literate, past and present. It takes up interrelation between language of a people and other aspects of culture. As a science, it includes phonetics, phonemics, morphology, and syntax. The sub-divisions are descriptive linguistics and comparative or historical linguistics. It is obvious that every country has its language and dialects, for all people whether civilized or not, have a means of communication. This means of communication is language, which differentiates man from animals. There are several characteristics of language, however, that may change, improve, add, subtract, or enrich its meaning, such as intonation and emphasis or stress. The study of language is called linguistics who has two sub-divisions as stated above.


Descriptive linguistics deals with the classification, arrangement and study of the features language which will be taken up later. Comparative or historical linguistics takes up the changes in language, the borrowings from other languages, and the comparison of languages.


The diagram may make the sub-divisions of anthropology clearer. 

 


Relation of Anthropology to Other Sciences

Physical Anthropology is related to the biological sciences - anatomy, physiology, embryology and genetics. Social Anthropology is related to sociology, psychology, geography, and economics and political science. Cultural anthropology is related to humanistic disciplines such as history, literature, arts and music.


Practical Applications of anthropology

The questions may will be asked. Of what use is anthropology? Anthropology has practical uses. Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism by instilling appreciation of other cultures through study of other societies and cultures, it contributes to education. It suggest the potential and general value of anthropology in inspiring government action. Research on all aspects of culture is undertaken by anthropologists. Through anthropological studies, programs of aid in the military, economic, and political fields are assessed and evaluated. Not only is there evaluation, but also inspiration of economic development and technical assistant programs. Through what is termed “Participant interference,” anthropology acts catalyzer and instigates action.


REFERENCES:

Ballen, Jerome B. “Physical Anthropology and its Place ion General Education.” Anthropology: Range and Relevance, Zamora, Mario and Salazar, Zews A. Quezon City: Kayumanggi Publishers, 1969, pp. 195-206.

Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry. An Introduction to Anthropolgy , 3rd ed. New York: The MacMillian Co., 1965, Chapter 1.

Jacobs, Melville, and Stern, Bernhard J., General Anthropology, N.Y. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1952, Chapter 1.

Kottak, Conrad Philip. Anthropology, New York: Random House, 1974, Chapter 1.

Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdeneck. Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houhgton Mifflin Co.,1978. Chapter 1.

Zamora, Mario D. and Lawless, Robert, An Introduction to Anthropology for Non-Anthropologists, ed. Zamora and Lawless, Quezon City: College of Arts and Sciences, UP., 1966-67.

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

How are culture and society related? What are the kinds, forms, and components of culture?


Meaning of Culture

Different meanings come to mind with the word culture. A person who is refined in manners and speech is said to be a “cultured” individual. A descendant of a line of “ladies” and “gentlemen” or of nobility who has wealth and do not need to work is “cultured.” One who observes the rules of etiquette is “cultured”. Knowledge about a wide range of subjects is designated as “culture.” “Culture” also means esthetic interest and sophisticated understanding of arts and humanities. High level of perfection in art, science, etc. is also deemed “culture”.

Sociologically, culture has a different meaning from those given above. According to Dressler, “culture is a social heritage, transmitted from one generation to another and shared. It consists of the sum total of skill, beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by a number of people and transmitted to their children.” Through culture, therefore, people learn to communicate with each other and to think and behave in certain ways approved by the group. According to Smith, Stanley, and Shores, “culture is the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, methods of thinking, customs, and institutions into which each member of society is born. Culture is that part of the environment which man himself has made.” Bertrand defines culture as “the complex whole which includes knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, law, costumes, and other capabilities gained by man as a member of society.” Other definitions of culture are:


  1. Clyde Kluckhon – Historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational, and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for behavior.

  2. American College Dictionary – Particular stage or state of civilization of a nation or period, such as Greek culture, sum total ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from generation to generation.

  3. Way people have learned to live together; behavior learned as a result of living in groups which tend to be patterned and to be transmitted from generation to generation.

  4. Ragan – the environment man has made consisting of artifacts, ideas, language, attitudes, beliefs, customs, etc. existing at a particular time and place.


Classification of Culture

Culture may be classified as static or dynamic. It is static when it emphasizes cultural transmission; i.e., the same culture is passed on from generation to generation. It is dynamic when it emphasizes change; i.e., it goes thru revision with each generation.

Culture may also be classified as stable or unstable. The culture is stable where folkways and mores are satisfying New elements and traits are incorporated smoothly and without conflict. In a stable culture, the more educated the individual, the more conservative he becomes. Where the group does not have satisfying solutions to most of its problems and conflicts, the culture is usually unstable. Conflict exists between the traditional and radical groups and their values. The more educated the individual, the more he sees the inadequacy of the culture. In unstable culture the school should pay attention to developing worthwhile values and provide for change.


How would you classify our culture?

Forms of Culture

Culture may be material or non-material. Material culture consists of tangible things houses, clothing, tools, utensils, automobiles, TV, etc. Non-material culture refers to what is symbolic or intangible such as sentiments, folkways, mores, systems, and beliefs and knowledge. What form of Philippine culture is becoming more prevalent among the youth in the Philippines today?

Examples of non-material culture follow:

Folkways are traditional ways of doing things in a certain culture. An example of a folkway in the Philippines is pamanhikan where the parents of the boy ask for the girl’s hand in marriage. Mores are heavily sanctioned folkways for group survival and are accepted without question as they embody moral views of the group. An Igorot folkway is for a boy to sleep in the ulog with the girl he is courting. If she becomes pregnant and he does not marry her, he is ostracized by the whole group, according to the mores of the tribe.

Costum means habitual practice. It is a custom in the Philippines to invite a guest to partake of a meal if he happens to b in the house at meal time. Another custom is for children to kiss the hand of their grandparents. Beliefs are also part of non-material culture. In India, some walk on live coals or lie a bed of nails and come out unscathed according to their belief. In Pampanga, every Good Friday, a man himself nailed to the Cross in the belief that no harm would come to him and nothing does.


COMPONENTS OF CULTURE


Culture is made of material or non-material triats. A combination of related traits form a culture complex, such as a football complex which is made up of football and the rules of the game. A culture complex has traits patterned around another important trait. Examples are the horse and buggy complex, automobile complex, television complex, and superiority complex. In a superiority complex, the central traits to which others are related is the thought that over-confidence, condescencion toward all others, self-pride, boastfulness, over-bearing manner, swaggering attitude, affectation in manner, etc. A culture pattern is a combination of culture complexes, as for instance, a sports pattern made up of football, basketball, and track cultures. “Pattern” refers to a specific way of behaving that is part of a given culture. For example, the way of greeting:


Americans – shake hands

Latin Americans – embrace

Eskimos – touch noses

Thai – put hands together and bow

Japanese – bow deeply

Filipino young or old – kiss hands



Functions of Culture

Culture is important and useful in many ways. Through culture, communication is possible by means of an language that is learned. People belonging to the same culture can anticipate how others may respond to their actions. The culture provides standards for differentiating right and wrong, beautiful and ugly, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous, reasonable and unreasonable. Among Christians, pre-marital sex is considered immoral, but not among the Igorots. To the Moslems, it is all right to have more than one wife, but not to the Christians. A tattooed body is considered beautiful by some African tribes, but it is ugly in the eyes of others. Children are trained to behave in ways approved by the group. Every culture provides the knowledge and skills needed for its survival. Through their culture, people identify with others and feel a sense of belonging.


Characteristics of Culture

What are the characteristics of a culture?

They are:

  1. Only human society possess culture.

  2. Human cultures vary considerably although they resemble each other in some respects.

  3. Culture tends to persist, once learned and accepted.

  4. Culture changes gradually and continuously.

  5. Culture exists in the minds of men who learned it from previous generations and who use it to guide their conduct with others.

  6. There is a tendency to borrow from other cultures.

  7. Members of a culture may behave differently as in the case of those who belong to sub-cultures.

Ex. Ilokanos may behave differently from the Visayans although they are both Filipinos.

  1. No person can escape entirely from his culture.




Another authority gives the following set of characteristics:

  1. Culture is concerned with actions, ideas, and artifacts which individual learn, share and value.

Others call this organized group behavior an institution.

Ex. English taking afternoon tea.

Misa de gallo” (dawn masses) before Christmas

  1. Culture may be regarded as a historical phenomenon, originating through innovation and spread by diffusion.

Ex. Association of candles with religion.

Carrying candles during processions.

  1. Culture may be regarded as a regional phenomenon

  • geographic or locality distribution.

Ex. drinking coffee; smoking which originated with American Indians an spread throughout the world.

  1. Culture tends to be patterned – repetition of similar approved behavior so that it has a form or structure. Specific way of behaving in a certain culture.

Ex. making the sign of the cross when passing a church

  1. Cultural elements have a function.

Ex. social status enhanced by owning a car

  1. Culture tends to be integrated – unity of premises, values, goals.

Ex. meaning of fiesta or patron saint

  1. Culture is subject to change.

Individual conduct varies, innovations occur, etc.

Ex. change in form and function of candles.

  1. Culture is valid to the extent that the local way of life is well-defined, homogenous, stable.

Yet variations may occur, such as sub-cultures. Certain wedding practices may exist only in certain regions. In Lucban, Quezon, after the wedding, there is a dance where bride and groom take partners who pin money on them. This is repeated with several partners until quite a sum is accumulated.


  1. Culture is sometimes designated as a system where interrelated elements are treated as a whole.

Ex. American culture has specific cultural systems which may be termed sub-cultures.

  1. Culture is a “continuum” – passed on from individual to individual, from generation to generation.

  2. Culture is “symbolic” – meanings attached to artifacts and personal motivations.

Ex. We have to know the meaning of certain wedding ceremonies or they would seem foolish to us. What is the meaning of pinning the veil and cord around the bride and groom?


Concept of Society

Culture is created by society which approves its system of values. It also includes a system of intermediate values that implements the ultimate values. Society, however, does not mean just the total sum of its people. To survive, society needs to perform certain basic needs, suh as law and order, transporation, agriculture, and industrial systems.


Meaning of Society

What constitute a society? To Keesing, it is an organized group or population. To Linton, it is human beings and institutions by which they live together in their culture. According to Dressler, “a society consists of all the people who share a distinct and continuous way of life. (that is, a culture) and think of themselves as one united people.” Bertrand defines society as “a social group that occupies territory, recruit its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, has a shared comprehensive culture.” To Smith, Stanley, and Shores, a society is a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have something in common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, an esprit de corps which makes the individual under certain circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group.”

From the above definitions, it follows that a group of people does not constitute a society unless it has the characteristics mentioned above.

How are society and culture related?


Relation Between Culture and Society

There can be no culture without society and there can be no society without culture. Both society and culture have common elements, but the two are not identical. Society is composed of people; culture consists of things people have learned to do, to behave, and to enjoy.




Personality and Characteristics in Relation to Culture

Each individual is unique. heredity and environment (education, training, etc.) give him/his individuality. He is not a passive recipient of culture; he is active, creative, and reacts actively to his culture; he may add innovations to culture.

Development of his personality is influenced by his capacity to learn, need to interact with others, ability to select, to create, to make individual decisions in relation to cultural and social milieu. Character is sometimes used interchangeably with personality. Character, however, refers more to moral qualities or ethical standards. Character influences behavior. Behavior of individuals influences the culture and culture influences individuals. Socialization is becoming a member of society – assumption of place within a social system.


Educational Implications

  1. Cultures differ and one should not judge another culture by using his own culture as basis.

  2. To avoid prejudices, there should be more contact between cultures.

  3. Travel, education, and reading about other societies are ways of bringing about tolerance and understanding between nations.

  4. With more diffusion between cultures, one global society may result.

  5. With the U.S as the best example of people getting along in spite of different sub-cultures, perhaps a one world concept may be brought about some day. Unity in spite of diversity.

  6. Society can be improve by improving the culture.

  7. Since culture is made by man himself, he should develop worthwhile values and weed out those beliefs, mores, superstitions, etc. that are detrimental to progress.

  8. Since culture is learned, the school should inculcate in the young, good aspects of the culture.

  9. Since culture changes, the change should be for the better and society should decide what those changes should be.

  10. The home, the school and the church should guard against borrowing from other cultures things that are against the Philippine way of life.


Can you name what is good in Philippine culture and what is not?


LANGUAGE AND WRITING


Why is language important? What is the function of writing?


A man’s language is a reflection of the kind person he is, the family he comes from, the level of education he has attained, and an index to the behavior that may be expected from him. What is language?


Definition of Language

According to Keesing, language is “a vocal symbolism of speech, with its related bodily gestures and mechanical signals which give precision and finesse to communication.”


Beals and Hoijer define language as “a way of speaking, distinct in every culture.”


To Herskovitz, language is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which members of social group cooperate and interact by which the learning process is effectuated and a given of way of life achieved both through continuity and change.”





Antiquity of Language


Just exactly when language began is not known, but it must be very old. It probably is as old man’s artifacts and perhaps began with culture as language is part of culture. All human societies, primitive or civilized have languages. Today, there are numerous, different languages. The universality and diversity of language prove that it is very old, for language develops slowly. Similarities in vocabulary and grammar show a common origin. The differences in the modern languages must have taken a long time to develop.

Language grows and changes. For example, take the original Latin that was spoken in Rome. This spread to other countries where changes took place independently. Out of Latin evolved the Romance languages – Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and Romanian.

Linguistics is an important subdivision of anthropology. The anthropologist first studies the language of a group whose culture he wants to know. Language is needed to understand a society and its people and the role of language in their lives.


Significance and Function of Language

Language is very important. Without language, knowledge could have been maintained and accumulated. man has able to devise, continue, and change a great variety of cultural institutions of material and non-material nature through language. Language is a form of learned behavior by which people communicate with each other; this function is probably one of the most important, if not the most important function of language. According to Herskovitz, language is a vehicle of culture by which the culture is passed on from one generation to generation. Language is a means of cooperation through which people learn to play together and to work together. Problems are solved, not through physical activities alone, but through thought and discussion; and therefore problem solving becomes continuous through language, according to Shapiro. He also states that language enables man to share the experiences and thoughts of others and to pass on knowledge to succeeding generations.

From the anthropological point of view, language is a way of making people close to one another, of fostering the feeling of belongingness. There are as many words as there are languages. Therefore, to cement people of the world together, they should speak one language. All nations of the earth should learn one language and English seems to be it. Many countries studies English as a second language.



Elements of Language



According to Herskovitz, every language has three parts which are:


  1. Phonemic system consisting of sounds

  2. Combination of sounds into units that have distinct significance – vocabulary

  3. Combination and recombination of number 2 into large units - grammar


According to Kessing, the parts of language are:


1. Set of sound signals, the articulatory of phonetic system phonology

2. Structural principles that put sounds signals in customary form – grammar or morphology (structure)

3. Set of meaning for signals and forms – (semantics); words embodying all 3 aspects of language in significant interrelation – vocabulary.


Kottak gives the following parts:

  1. Phonology – study of sounds in human speech

  2. Grammar – arrangement of sounds into longer sequence of speech or longer utterances

  3. Lexicon – vocabulary or the meaning system of language


Summing up, then, all languages have a:

  1. Well-defined system of speech sounds

  2. Grammar – way of putting together words, phrases, sentences according to definite rules. (All societies, whether pre-litertae pygmies or advanced European groups, have grammar)

  3. Vocabulary which increases with every new culture item.


Linguistic Structure


Analysis of the language shows that it is composed of:


  1. Phonemes – similar sounds contrasting and mutually exclusive; the same sounds, but different in meaning ass the word strike

Phonemes – distinctive sounds, such as:

cat and pat – alike except in initial phonemes

cat and cot – alike except in middle phonemes

cat and cap – alike except in final phonemes

  1. Morphemes – minimum significant unit forming a word or part of a word.

Ex. income from in and come.


Morphemes – composed of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. cat is a morpheme made up of phonemes c,a,t. Phonemes p,a,t make up the morpheme pat.


  1. Morphology – combinations of words into linguistic forms. The combination of words into sentences following grammatical rules, such as subject (noun), predicate, (verb) and modifier (adverb or adjective).


Importance of the Study of Language

Language should be studied as it is an aspect of culture that differentiates man form animals. It should be used correctly as it is criterion that differences the educated from the uneducated.


Writing

A confusion arises with regard to language and writing as if the later is a special language. This may be explained by the fact that in school, children learn to read and write almost at the same time. Also , when we speak of literacy, we think of ability to read and write. Written language, however, is different from spoken language.

Writing, according to Beals and Hoijer, is “a set of techniques for the graphic representation of speech.” Herskovitz defines writing as “round-about speech or mechanical gesture; a series of graphic symbols (or symbol of symbols) which hold and store information more or less permanently according to the medium, apart from the individuals who are in communication.


Invention of Writing

Writing is a more recent invention than language. While language appeared more than a million years ago, that is, when man first acquired the rudiments of culture, the first written records in English were dated A.D. 900.

Writing was invented more than once in several places. The earliest invention was in Egypt, probably in the Bronze Age. This spread to Europe and Asia, and underwent many changes. The Chinese also developed their own system of writing, and so did the Indians of Central America at a much later date. The Aztecs of Mexico also had writing which was probably derived from the Central American Indian.


Development of Writing

Writing perhaps originated from drawing, which was as much part of culture as language Conventionalized pictographs may be regarded as the earliest form of writing. In fact, the life style of primitive people was gleaned from the pictures drawn on the walls of their cave dwellings. With time, the pictorial symbols became more and more abbreviated. This kind of writing was called pictograph or picture writing.

True writing perhaps began when conventionalized graphic symbols became associated with the sounds of a language. Symbols stood for words or particular combinations of speech sounds. This was called logographic writing and the symbols that represented words were called logograms. Logographs or logograms appeared in the Near East, in Chinese, and in Maya Writing. The problem of logographic writing was the difficulty of representing abstract ideas.

China continued the above trend and developed the traditional ideographic writing – a distinctive symbol for each idea. In modern Chinese writing, symbols are reduced to 214 basic characters which may be combined. To read and write Chinese fluently, it is necessary to memorize all these symbols. Most Chinese words are one syllable, but in English where long words have several syllables, this system of writing would be difficult.

Recognition of the phonetic factor made words that are the same in sound but different in meaning, represented by the same character. Phonetic characters that have a constant phonographic value are called phonograms. Phonograms came to be associated with syllables rather than whole words and were called syllabaries. Syllabaries became widespread. Mesopotamia (Iraq), Babylonia, and Sumeria wrote their ancient languages by means of a syllabary. They wrote on clay tablets with a stylus having a wedge-shaped edge end. The writing was called cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning “wedge”. Old Persian and Greek were also written in syllabic characters. Syllabic writing is still used in Japan today where the Japanese syllabary has about 65 characters.

The alphabetic system of writing developed around 1800 B.C. when Semitic – speaking peoples took the Egyptian syllabary of 24 characters and transformed these into consonant symbols. Alphabetic writing is further refinement of phonographic symbolism whereby a character becomes attached to a phoneme that conveys appropriate meanings.

Ex.: pear, pair, pare

The Phonenicians are credited with the invention of the alphabet where they substituted consonants for the 24 characters. The Greeks added vowels in place of the consonants they did not need. From the Greeks, the complete alphabet spread to Rome and to other European countries. This is the alphabet that we are using now.


Relation of Writing to Language

Writing has a history of its own and developed separately from language. They are not the same although they are related. There are two different aspects of culture. Language is a complex of patterns that govern or control speech while writing is the written symbol of speech. Writing is a recent invention compared to language. All societies having more or less the same level of development possess language, but not writing. Writing is found in advanced societies but may be lacking in primitive tribes.

Importance of Writing

Writing is essential to the highly complex civilization today. It makes possible long distance communication. It is a means of keeping records and preserving them for posterity. It is vital to the system of education, research, and to world culture. That is why scientists consider the invention of writing as the beginning of true civilization. However, learning, literacy, and education became widely spread only with the invention of the printing press.


Educational Implications

  1. Since language is an aspect of culture, one should study the language well and speak it correctly.

  2. The more languages a person knows, the better educated he is and the easier he can adjust to other peoples.

  3. To understand people, it is necessary to know their language.

  4. Knowing a people’s language is a means of fostering good public relations.

  5. Since English is the language spoken throughout most of the world, one should study it well.

  6. Reading books and magazines is one way of increasing one’s vocabulary.

  7. A person should learn to write legibly and clearly as this is a mark of the well-educated.

  8. Fluency in speaking and writing comes with practice; so one should take every opportunity to speak and write well.


What other implications can be made regarding language and writing?



RELIGION


What are some of the great religions of the world? What role does religion play in human affairs?

Another factor in man’s life that influences his behavior is religion. What is religion?


Definition of Religion


  1. Pi-Sunyer and Salzmann define religion as “recognition of belief in some source or power that transcends human and is capable of assisting or harming them.”

  2. Anthony F.C. Wallace gives this definition – “a kind of human behavior which can be classified as belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces.”

  3. Beals and Hoijer define religion as “ response to man’s needs for an organized conception of the universe, for mechanism that will allay his anxieties concerning his inability to predict and understand events that do not conform to natural law.”

  4. To Herskovitz, religion is the control of the universe; means by which man maintains himself in the scheme of things.


From the foregoing definitions, certain characteristics of religion are evident, such as: (1) belief in the supernatural which is all powerful, (2) an influence on human behavior, (3) an explanation for what is unexpected. Examples of situations or occurrences that cannot be explained by science and where religion is used to provide the answers are:


  1. A healthy individual who had no previous history of heart disease suddenly has a heart attack and dies.

  2. A person who had cancer as shown by x-ray suddenly shows no trace of the disease (by x-ray) after a visit to Lourdes shrine, France.

  3. An out-of-reason typhoon in April destroys a crop.

  4. A very good husband, rich and good-looking, is deserted by his wife.



Nature of Religion


In some societies there is a belief in a generalized and impersonal force, influence, or power that exists invisibly throughout the universe and may be possessed to a greater or lesser degree by gods, men, the forces of nature (sun, moon, rain, or thunder) and natural objects such as pools, rivers, trees, stones. A concept of impersonal power exists. In other societies, there is a belief in gods, spirits, and other personalized supernaturals. Some tribes believe in animism where the spirit continues to exist after the death or destruction of the body. The spirits are supposed to control events in the material world and in man’s life. This led to the beliefs in souls and in a future state, which is part of the Catholic religion today.



Folk or Primitive Religion


Where or how religion started in not very clear, but even the primitive tribes had some kind of religion. American Indians worshipped supernatural beings. The Aztecs of Mexico worshipped a god. The city-state of Athens worshipped the goddess Athena. The Greeks and the Romans had their gods and goddesses. The Roman emperor and the Egyptian pharaoh were regarded as deities in times of classical antiquity. The Japanese emperor was venerated as descendant of the sun-god before World War II.


Variety of Religious


Today many different kinds of religions abound in the world. The Christian religions are composed of Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox (Greek) Catholics and Judaoe-Christianity. The non-Christian religions consist of:


Islam-Mohammedan

Buddhism

Confucianism

Hinduism

Zoroastrianism

Jewish

Shintoism

Animism


There are many things that are common in all religion rather than differences. The golden rule is part of most religions.


Belief in Most Societies Regarding Religion


Whatever religion they belong to, different societies have common beliefs. These are:


  1. Religion does things for people. Most prayers ask for something that people want done for them.

  2. Religion has to do with the powers of the universe, the range and intensity of these powers, and the manner in which they influence the lives of people. Religion influences not only the life style of people, but also their behavior. The Moslems do not eat pork. In India, the cow is not only not eaten, but it is venerated. Most Catholics do not eat meat on Fridays, especially on Good Friday. Seventh Day Adventists are mostly vegetarians.

  3. There are methods by which these powers may be enlisted in behalf of man, not only as benevolent guardians, but also as agents that may help man achieve certain ends. Some of the methods employed are prayers, masses, sacrifices, abstinence, apostolic work, etc. Christians usually make sacrifices and penance during Holy Week. Novelas are a common means employed by Catholics to request something. Some have masses said for many occasions. Going to Mecca is to the Moslems what going to Jerusalem is to the Christians. It probably represents the nearest thing to heaven on this earth.



Instruments of Religion


To reach ends desired by man, different instrument of religion are used. There is the ritual, which is prescribed way of performing religious acts. Various religions have different rituals. Examples are the rain dance performed by American Indians, the temple dance, dance to the gods by Bestal Virgins. Praying, singing sacred songs, making sacrifices, preparing offerings, making the sign of the cross, are other rituals. Prayer may be a devout petition, a supplication to an object of worship, a thanksgiving, or a spiritual communion with God. A ceremony is a number of interconnected and related rituals, performed at a given time. Examples of ceremonies are:


    1. Sunday morning service

    2. Marriage ceremony

    3. Baptismal rites and confirmation rites

    4. Puberty rites

    5. Blessing of a house

    6. Processions to a patron saint


Taboos are prohibitions. Different religions have certain taboos, which are ignored, are supposed to bring down misfortune on the violator. Examples, of taboos are those on food and incest. There is also the taboo on prohibition of sexual intercourse while the mother is nursing the baby. Sometimes this taboo may act to maintain population level.


Religious Practitioners


In the educational field, the teacher is the agent of instruction. In the religious world who are the leaders or practitioners? They are:


  1. The Shaman – man or who serves society as part-time religious practitioner – usually in primitive societies.

  2. The priest or minister – full-time religious practitioner who gets power through association with an organized religious group.


Priest are prepared by intensive training unlike the shaman who may be the result of inspiration or possession by a god or spirit.


The other word religions also have their leaders or practitioners.




Use of Religion


Religion is used to:


  1. Explain events or situations that defy comprehension (meaningless, contradictory or inexplicable)

  2. Provide comfort in times of stress and anxiety.

  3. Set guidelines for conduct of human affairs and furnish a sense of common purpose for members of a social group.


Role or Function of Religion are:


  1. Provide an organized picture of the universe and establish orderly relationships between man and his surroundings.

  2. Reduce fears and anxieties and give man not only a feeling of security in the uncertain present, but the hope as well of a tolerable future.

  3. Reflect close and intimate relations with the world of the supernatural and also with animals, plants, and other aspects of nature.

  4. Reinforce and maintain cultural values.

    1. Few religions except Judaism and Christianity are linked to ethics and morality.

  5. Support and emphasize particular culturally defined standards of behavior.

  6. Preserves knowledge through rituals and ceremony.

    1. Ceremonies are dramas that symbolically re-enact important procedures.

  7. Rituals and ceremonies together with uniform beliefs, contribute to social participation and solidarity.

    1. individual participation in such occasions bring emotional satisfaction.

    2. ceremonies were as a social function which develop social cohesion and group solidarity.

    3. Also create and maintain divisions.

    4. Instrument of change – Ex. Jesus Christ’s preaching of love


Educational Implications


  1. It is important for every one to have a religion in view of the role that religion play’s in one’s life.

  2. Since religion influences behavior, one should choose one’s religion wisely.

  3. Since the nature and function of all religions are the same, there should be tolerance of all religions.

  4. One should study one’s religion well and live it.

  5. Apply the teachings of religion to self, family, community, and the world.


Make your own implications regarding your religion.



THE ARTS


Why is art important? What are its functions?


Nature and Definition of Art


If religion stems from a psychological need in the individual, perhaps the same thing may be said of the arts. Art is a part of culture and dates back to antiquity. It is present in all societies although not at the same rate of development. That art is universal is probably the best proof that it satisfies a deep psychological need common to all people.


What is art? The dictionary defines art as a production or expression of what is beautiful or appealing; an esthetic expression. According to Beals, art is “an activity that over and above its utilitarian values brings satisfaction both to the artist and to those who participate in his work as beholders, audience, or collaborators.” This esthetic exponent differentiates art from other aspects of culture.


The earliest stages of art were realistic or representative of expression. Later, art became geometric, symbolic, and decorative in expression. The tendency is to change toward progressive simplification and conventionalization. Painting is a good example. In the beginning, paintings were made to appear as close as possible to the original as shown by landscapes and portraits of people. Now, modern painting has become symbolic and representational ass shown by cubistic painting. The works of Picazzo and Edades illustrate this. The trend now is toward impressionistic painting.


Functions of Art


Of what use is art? The following are the functions of art:


  1. Art gives esthetic satisfaction to artists, performers, audience or participants. A person sings for the mere pleasure it gives him. People dance because they enjoy doing it. Watching a ballet performance or listening to a symphonic concert gives pleasure. Looking at a painting may evoke pleasant emotions.

  2. Art serves as a medium for the communication of ideas, attitudes and values. The degree of communication depends on how much the conventions and symbols use are understood by the audience. For instance, in our society, a halo or a ring over the head of a figure symbolizes a saint. Some primitive groups may not understand this. In Chinese and Japanese plays, the actors and actresses wear masks. The audience should know which mask represents the hero, the heroine, and the villain. A room in a stage drama has only three walls. Sometimes, all walls are dispensed with in the arena style of drama.

  3. Art conserves and reinforces beliefs, customs, attitudes and values. This function is possessed by all arts, but it is more evident in literary and pictorial arts. The religious art in the architecture of churches, the religious scenes, and the images of saints create emotional and intellectual atmosphere needed for religious exercises; serve to remind one in what he should believe in; and when in drama form, serve for instructional purpose (or propaganda).

  4. As stated above, Art may be used for instructional purpose (or propaganda). Examples of these are the mystery plays and the religious dramas coupled with dance that were given in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the Philippines, the “Moro-moro” plays where Christians vanquished the Mohammedans, were used to spread Christianity. Schools made use of Christmas plays, pageants, myths and folk tales to develop certain attitudes and values. Today, mass media like the motion picture, is a very good vehicle for changing attitudes, instilling values, and solving social problems.

  5. Art reveals its relationship to society and shows how art forms are transmitted through time and space. The state of the art in a society is a reflection of the attitude of that society toward art and its stage of progress. The collection of art works in the group will not only give a history of art development but also show how this has been transmitted from generation to generation.


Art is a cultural tradition. The techniques used, the choice of subject matter, the preferences or emphasis on certain art, the functions of art, the attitudes toward art take the attitude toward paintings of nude. There are many of these in the art galleries of Europe. Some conservative societies may frown on paintings of nudes and this may influence painters.


Music


Music is the art that best shows the effect of cultural tradition in deciding what is approved and desirable, both socially and individually. However, what is pleasing I one society may not be so in another. Chinese music sounds queer to Western eras and so does music of primitive tribes.


Music probably originated in song rather than in devised instruments. The earliest forms of rhythmical activity that were accompanied by singing were probably rocking infants, walking, or repeated regular work movements. Music did away with the monotony of labor and acted as stimulant.

Occassions for music among non-literate people are:

  1. Lullabies composed by mothers which are learned by children and sung while playing.

  2. Songs by young men to amuse and entertain their sweethearts.

  3. Serenades outside the tipi (tent) to the loved one.

  4. Sacred songs in time of personal crisis, ceremonies, and rituals.

  5. Martial songs before and after war.

  6. Songs of praise and mourning songs.

The evolution of music passed through two stages. The first stage was singing which went through the range of the human voice. The second stage was musical expression by fashioned instruments.


The history of music shows that what was considered “barbaric” in one era may be accepted later. An example is jazz music which was not accepted when it first appeared. Now, it is very popular. Primitive music has rhythm, but lacks melody.


Today some modern music seems to revert to rhythm, but lacks melody.


Musical instruments developed much later than singing. The flute and piccolo-like instruments made of wood, bamboo or bone were found in most regions. There were also a few percussion instruments like rattle, tambourine, and drums. Later, xylophone – like instrument of wood and bamboo were also developed. In the Old World, complex instruments capable of various effects and musical styles, were invented. Stringed instruments like the multistringed lyre and cithara spread from the Near East to the Old World.


The major factors in the history of modern European music were:


  1. Writing, symbolic representation, and analysis of music.

  2. Cumulative advances in the technology of string instruments.

  3. Development of harmony.


Dance


The dance is a universal feature of human society. It is found in all groups as the human body has the same nervous system and muscle equipment no matter what race. Hence, dance styles can be as complex and beautiful among the primitives as among the civilized. The dance which may display superb esthetic quality is not a rarity primitive society.


The different forms of the dance are religious or magico-ceremonial dancing, play dancing, dramatic and symbolic dancing. The dance has a social and cultural function.


The dance originated far back in time. In primitive society, the dancer’s body was not confined. Now, the higher the economic level the more progressive and intriguing the dance regalia because recently, dance themes became more entertaining rather than religious or magico-ceremonial.


Poetry and Pose


Although prose and poetry are related, they are not the same. Prose is ordinary, matter of fact language. Poetry is beautiful thought in beautiful language, rhythmically expressed. Poetry is difficult to separate from song. The poems of primitive people were short and chanted.


Prose, oral and written, is found among all peoples. The types of prose found are:


  1. Narratives, which, like songs, are universal and are composed of –

Myths – stories of another world that deal with gods, spirits and other supernaturals; usually concerned with origins of the universe and its aspects such as fire, food, animals, plants, death, illness, society, ceremonials, and rituals.


Legends – events in the present world or an earlier time with men as actors; more worldly in content although they may include what is wonderful, awesome, and supernatural.


Proverbs and riddles – contains wisdom of the group. These are not as universal in non-literate societies.


Rhymes which are found only in literary productions.

Dramas and oratory.


How did oral literature come about? With the development of language, events were described and narrated. Natural phenomena such as the seasons, phases of the moon, path of the sun, comets, shooting stars, tides, storms, lightning, thunder, floods, forest, fires, and fogs were treated allegorically and became the origin of folk tales.


Folktales perform certain functions, such as:


  1. To entertain

  2. To know the rationale behind customs and geographical features.

  3. To teach moral lessons.

  4. To direct minor educational functions.


Art in the Individual


The production of art involves two factors:


  1. The Culture and the period in history in which the artist participates.

  2. The people with whom he lives and works – critics, collaborators, friends and relatives.


Art is produced by individuals although many may collaborate a in a dramatic production, a ballet, a symphonic concert, a movie production, etc. Many forms, actions, and patterns may make up a completed production, but the act of creating can be traced to an individual. It is erroneous to think that a work of art is the exclusive production of one person or that a movie is the sum of individual contributions. In a painting, there is the painter and the model. A poem is composed by the poet after being inspired by some one. The artist gives expression to sentiments, and ideas that arise through his interaction with others. Hence, social and cultural setting is important.


The artist may work in strict isolation, but he is always subject to influences from his culture, historical period, and people with whom he lives. An example is the narration of myths and legends wherein the story teller adapts his tale to reactions of the audience. This is also true in singing.


In primitive society, the individual is not given ass much prominence as a modern society where the painter or novelist may become famous. Hence, in primitive society, art is designated as folk art.


Educational Implications


  1. Art should be included in the curriculum of the elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels.

  2. The second should try to find out the kind of artistic inclination of the child and try to develop this.

  3. In order to give outlets for different individual talents, the school should offer varied extra-curricular activities, such as Glee Club, Dramatics, Dance Troupe, Rondalla, etc.

  4. Field trips to museums, libraries, etc. should be sponsored by the school.

  5. Artists may be invited by the school to give demonstrated lectures so that children and youth may have first hand experience with different art forms.

  6. Participation in singing contests, declamation and oratorical contest and other contests should be encouraged by the school.


References


Anthropology, New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc. 1952 Chapter XVI.


Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry, Introduction to Anthropology, New York: The McMillan Co.,1965, Chapter 9.


Bertrand, Alvin L. Basic Sociology. 2nd edition. New York: Meredith Corporation, 1973, Chapter 2 and 6.


Catapusan, Benicio T. and Catapusan, Flora Diaz. Introduction to Sociology, Quezon City: Filipino Books, Inc, 1973, Chapter 4.


Dressler, David with Garns, Donald. Sociology 2nd. ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1973, Chapters 1, 3, and 10.


Espiritu, Socorro C. Sociology in the New Philippine Society. Q.C. Alemar – Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. 1977, Chapters 3 and 5.


Fried, Morton, Readings in Anthropology. New York: Thomas F. Crowell Co.,1959. Chapter 20, 31. 32.


Herskovitz, Melville and Stern, Bernhard T. General


Keesing. Felix M. Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958, Chapter VII.


Kluckhon, Clyde, Mirror for Mass, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc.1949, Chapter 6.


Kottack, Conrad Philip, Anthropology, New York: Random Home, Inc. 1974, Chapter 13.


Ross, H. Laurence, Perspectives on the Social Order. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963, Chapters 5, 6, and 7.


Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdenek, Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1978, Chapters 17, 18, 19.