B.Ed.
Teaching Notes
Theoretical
bases of teaching physical science
Unit
1 - Meaning and Nature of Science.
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET
Assistant Professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.
Ø Science, its meaning, nature of science
·
Science
is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observations which result in
the formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and theories being
subject to modification in the light of further empirical observations.
·
National
Academy of Sciences, (1999)- “Science is
a particular way of knowing about the world.
In science, explanations are limited to those based on observations
and experiments that can be substantiated by other scientists. Explanations that cannot be based on
empirical evidence are not part of science.”
·
Science is both a body of knowledge and the
process of acquiring it.
·
3 Fold nature of science
Science is a body of knowledge
Science is a way of investigating
Science is a way of thinking
(an attitude towards life)
Definitions
of Science
·
According to Conant “Science is an interconnected series of concepts and
conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of experimentation and
observation and are fruitful of further experimentation and observation”.
·
Lord Bullock
:-Science is a human study, deeply concerned with man and society ,providing
scope for imagination and compassion as well as for observation and analysis
·
Dr.F.R.Schlessinger:
- Science is a Process of the human intellect. it is a way of thinking ,a way
of doing, method discovering new relationships in the physical and biological
universe. It is also Product of the Process.
·
B.F Skinner:
Science is first of all a set of attitudes. it is disposition to deal with
facts rather than with what someone has said about them.
These
definitions emphasis three basic principles of the nature of science. (3 fold nature)
Science is:
- 1) An accumulated and systematized body of knowledge
2) A method of enquiry
3) An attitude towards
life
Ø Science as a Process
The ways of
gathering information, thinking,
measuring, problem solving etc are called process of science. The various
processes of science can be classified into five.
- Collection of data
- Analysis of data
- Synthesis of
data
- Evaluation of data
- Application
of generalizations to
new situations
According to Dr. D.S. Kothari, “to learn
science is to do science, there is no other way learning science.” The pupils
learn to unfold the mysteries
of nature through
Process skills of science .
These integrated process skills are the following.
1. Identifying and controlling variables
2. Defining operationally
3. Forming hypotheses
4. Experimenting
5. Tabulating
and graphing
6. Interpreting data
7. Testing hypotheses
8. Drawing conclusions
Ø Science as a product
Whatever information
or ideas we acquire through various processes
of science form the
product of science
. The basic
components of the product of science are
terms ,facts, concepts , principles , theories , laws and
rules.
Ø Science as both Process
and Product
Science
is both a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring it. Both
of these aspects contribute mutually for the development of Science.
Ø Differentiate
between science as a product and as a process
Product
aspect
|
Process
aspect
|
The product of science are the facts,
concepts, principles, theories and laws.
|
The process consists of thinking, measuring,
problem solving etc.
|
The product is a collection of knowledge
stored in books or generated in the minds of scientists
|
The process represent the ways of gathering
this knowledge or information
|
Product aspect is a noun
|
The process aspect is more a verb than a
noun.
|
Product aspect represents the ‘end’ of
scientific pursuits.
|
The process aspect represents the means
towards the end.
|
Ø Science as a method
Scientific method is the procedure adopted by
scientists in their investigation
Scientific method is a systematic and orderly
method of solving problems
·
Steps of Scientific
Method
· Sensing
the problem
A felt difficulty. You feel the problem only when you get involved in it.
Teacher should make students involve in the
scientific problem
· Defining
the problem
Students define the problem in a concise definite and clear language.
There should be some key words in the
definition. Teacher
may assist in defining
· Collecting
the data
Relevant details are collected from experts /reference books/ or from
first hand experience
· Formulation
of hypothesis
Through analysis/ synthesis/ logical inference, several probable
solutions (hypothesis) are arrived at.
· Testing Hypothesis
Finding out the bearings of the hypothesis.
The hypotheses are scrutinized using actual
testing or logical reasoning. If the
implications agree with the observed facts, they are accepted others are
rejected.
· Confirmation
and generalization through experiments.
The conclusions are subjected to rigorous and repeated tests and are
generalized to wider areas.
Ø Science as an attitude
Scientific
attitude is defined as open mindedness, a desire for accurate knowledge,
confidence in procedure for seeking knowledge and expectation that the solution
of the problem will come through the use of verified knowledge.
Characteristics of person having
scientific attitude
- Intellectual
honesty.
- Open
mindedness in receiving new ideas.
- Derives
intellectual; satisfaction from scientific pursuits.
- Is
prepared to reconsider his own judgements.
- Curiosity
- Creative
- Hardworking
- Belief
in cause and effect relationship.
- Objectivity
- Critical
mindedness
- Methodical
way of solving problems
- Freedom
from superstitions.
A
science teacher must have these characteristics and have to be a role model to
students.
Ø Implications of Nature of Science for the Science
Teacher.
Science
teachers face a challenging task to inculcate the essence of the scientific
enterprise among students. Students should be made familiar with scientific way
of knowing and thus constructing their knowledge in science. Teacher should structure
the learning experiences in such a way that the nature of science becomes an
inherent part of all teaching-learning situations.
Historical
aspects of the development of scientific concepts should be emphasised. It
would help students to appreciate how science evolved by human endeavour and
resulted in the development of various technologies. It is important to
simultaneously reduce the overload of memorising facts which often cause a
disinclination towards science.
Laboratory
work in science, infused with the spirit of inquiry, provides students with
hands-on experiences and develops a scientific attitude which is one of the
important aims of teaching & learning of science.
The role of the science teacher is crucial to the
development of scientific temper among students. It goes without saying that
the teacher should herself be competent in the area she teaches; she must be
familiar with all the aspects of the nature of science; and she must have
imbibed scientific temper herself. Such a teacher can exemplify the content of
scientific temper from her everyday conduct. From time to time, she can engage
her students in discussions to develop scientific temper among them, and foster
the values hidden in scientific method like truth, honesty and open-mindedness.
She can help her students retain and sharpen further the sense of inquiry by allowing
them to explore their environment and encouraging them to ask questions, even
if sometimes these questions appear trivial. By her own enthusiasm for science
she can transmit the excitement of doing science. During teaching- learning she
can convey that science is tentative and nothing is fixed or final and the
quest for progressive refinement of theories and explanations continues in which
the students can participate at that time and later when they grow old.
Activities such as projects, field work, paper
reading along with laboratory work and discussion would encourage students to
do science. This in turn, would help them to learn the skills associated with
the inquiry and processes of science such as observing, measuring,
hypothesising, predicting, analysing and communicating.
Ø Importance of Science as a school
subject
Study of science has
been given due place in our school education programme because of its
multifarious values/ functions.
·
Values
of teaching science
1 Intellectual value
Study of
science provides the opportunity of
developing mental faculties of reasoning , critical thinking , reflective thinking , imagination , memory ,
concentration , observation , analysis and
systematic thinking .
2 Disciplinary value
Learning of science trains
one in scientific method and develops scientific punctuality etc. The mental
power acquired by learning science will enable one to discipline oneself and
thus help to be a useful member of the society.
3 Practical value or utilitarian value
Science has revolutionized our
ways of living. Right from the cradle to the grave all our activities are
controlled and fashioned by science. We have devised labour saving gadgets and
machines. Olden ways of transport on horses and camels have given way to cars,
electric trains, aeroplanes etc. Agriculture has been greatly improved by use
of artificial manures and pesticides. Science has a great medicinal value and
has worked miracles in the field of surgery and medicine. It has restored eyes
to the blind, hearing to the deaf and leg to the lame
4 Recreational value
Learning of science can
cater to the recreational needs of individuals by offering a large number of
opportunities such as movies, television, computer, audio – video equipments
and musical instruments.
The useful and gainful
hobbies related to physical science like photography , constriction of
scientific toys , manufacturing tooth paste , inks , varnishes etc are not only
interesting but are financially useful .
5
Moral value
Science is pursuit of truth and person
busy in pursuit of truth imbibes in himself the qualities of morality. Every
scientific conclusion defends upon tests and actual observation and not by
cheat and deceit. The idea “Truth is beauty “is always kept in view.
6 Cultural Value
Science is part of
culture, and how science is done largely depends on the culture in which it is practiced.
Science has played an important role in determining the culture of all
societies. It has impact on our way of thinking and way of living. The cultural
aspect of science should be appreciated by students.
7 Aesthetic Value
Science itself has a
desire for beauty. It is in the aesthetic aspect that the whole beauty of
science lies. Scientists experience an intrinsic charm in revealing the harmony
of nature. To a man of science, science is an art and he himself is an artist.
Cience has given us much facility to enjoy the beauty of natural and artificial
phenomena and thus to experience the thrill and pleasure arising out of
appreciation of beauty.
8
Social Value
Truth is what the scientific
community says it is. Science is nothing more than social psychological
process, constrained by scientific standards. It is up to the community to
decide what science is bad and what science is good. The discoveries of Science
will affect the society and vice versa. Science should be utilized for the
development and wellbeing of society. Science helps one to be a useful member
of society.
General
aims of teaching physical science
(Expand
& write according to marks)
The
general aims of teaching science in schools are
1) understanding
the nature of science,
2) skill
acquisition,
3) development
of scientific attitude,
4) training
in scientific method,
5) development
of interest and appreciation towards science,
6) helping
students to adjust better with society,
7) Developing
suitable career interests.
Ø Scientific Attitude and Scientific
Aptitude
Scientific attitude
is defined as open mindedness, a desire for accurate knowledge, confidence in
procedure for seeking knowledge and expectation that the solution of the
problem will come through the use of verified knowledge.
Criteria
• Intellectual honesty
• Open mindednessin receiving new ideas
• Derives intellectual; satisfaction
from scientific pursuits
• Is prepared to reconsider his own
judgements
Scientific aptitude
is the inherent ability (in the field of science) which helps in acquiring
required skills and proficiency in the field of science.
Criteria
• Have high problem solving ability
• Have good memory and reasoning
ability.
• Have good ability for logical and
abstract thinking.
·
Differentiate between scientific attitude and
scientific aptitude?
Scientific attitude
|
Scientific aptitude
|
Scientific attitude is defined as open
mindedness, a desire for accurate knowledge, confidence in procedure for
seeking knowledge and expectation that the solution of the problem will come
through the use of verified knowledge
|
Scientific
aptitude
is the inherent ability (in the field of science) which helps in acquiring
required skills and proficiency in the field of science
|
Is a condition of mind generating emotional
states
|
It
is supposed to be an inborn ability/Capacity.
|
Can be created by studying science
|
Cannot be created. (It exists in the individual which may be perfected through science
study)
|
Is a pre-requisite for science study
|
Even if there is no aptitude, you can teach science
to an average level.
|
Scientific
Attitude is the way one look at Science and behaves about it.
|
Scientific
Aptitude is how good one is in Science and its requirements
|
·
Techniques for developing scientific attitude
1)
Use
of Wide reading
Science Magazines, journals, recent
science news, biographies of Scientists etc
2)
Use
of planned Exercises
Interesting Experiments, Projects, Brain
storming, Buzz session etc
3)
Proper
use of Laboratory period
4)
Co-curricular
activities in science
Science club, science museum, scientific
hobbies, Scientific excursions, exhibitions, science fair etc
5)
Make class room atmosphere democratic so that there is freedom for
expression
6)
Personal
Example of Teacher.
Ø Branches of science
Science that describe the physical
universe are categorized in different ways. The largest distinction in science
is whether a science is pure, or theoretical, or whether it is applied, or
practical. Pure science explains a phenomenon, while applied science determines
how a particular phenomenon may be put to use. In general, pure science is
divided into the following categories:
- Physical
sciences, which deal with matter and energy and allow us to describe the
material universe in terms of weight, mass, volume, and other standard,
objective measures.
- Earth
sciences, which explain the phenomena of Earth, its atmosphere, and the
solar system to which it belongs.
- Life
sciences, which describe living organisms, their internal processes, and
their relationship to each other and the environment.
However, these three categories of
pure science have areas of overlap, where one type of phenomenon may be
associated with another. For example, light (studied in physics) is the energy
source behind the (chemical) process of photosynthesis, or food production, in
plants (studied in biology). For this reason, distinctions between pure
sciences, and even between pure and applied sciences, can blur, and a new
compound science can develop. An example of this is biochemistry, in which the
chemical processes of living things (such as photosynthesis) are observed and
explained.
Physical sciences
|
Life sciences
|
Earth sciences
|
Physics
Kinetics Mechanics Electromagnetics Thermodynamics |
Biology
Botany Zoology |
Geology
Meteorology Astronomy |
Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry Electrochemistry Analytical Chemistry |
Physical
Sciences
- Physics: The study
of matter and energy and the interactions between them. Physicists study
such subjects as gravity, light, and time.
- Chemistry: The science
that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the structure
of matter.
- Astronomy: The study
of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
Earth
Sciences
- Geology: The science
of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical,
chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is
experiencing.
- Oceanography: The
exploration and study of the ocean.
- Paleontology: The science
of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
- Meteorology: The science
that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and
climate.
Life
Sciences (Biology)
- Botany: The study
of plants.
- Zoology: The science
that covers animals and animal life.
- Genetics: The study
of heredity.
- Medicine: The science
of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.
Ø Emergence of interdisciplinary
subjects in Science
Interdisciplinarity involves
the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity
or subject. It is about creating something new by crossing boundaries, and
thinking across them.
These
are fields of study that cross traditional disciplinary boundaries and involve
a wide variety of interactions ranging from informal groups of scholars to
well-established research and teaching communities. Examples of
interdisciplinary subjects are neuroscience, biochemistry, environmental
science, geobiology, engineering, psycholinguistics, cultural studies, women’s
studies, urban studies, Nanotechnology, Bioinformatics, Geoinformatics, ICT etc
·
Nanotechnology:
Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the
nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology
are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used across
all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials
science, and engineering.
·
Bioinformatics:
It is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for
understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science,
bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and
engineering to analyze and interpret biological data. Bioinformatics is the
application of computer technology to the management of biological information.
Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and
genetic information which can then be applied to gene-based drug discovery and
development.
·
Geoinformatics:
It is the science and the technology which develops and uses information
science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and
related branches of science and engineering. Applications of Geoinformatics includes
land use management, navigation systems,
virtual globes, environmental modeling and analysis, military, transport
network planning and management, agriculture, meteorology and climate change,
oceanography and coupled ocean and atmosphere modelling, business location
planning, architecture and archeological reconstruction, telecommunications,
etc
·
ICT:
Information and communications technology (ICT) is an umbrella term in
cooperating many disciplines for information technology (IT). It includes the role
of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone
lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise
software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to
access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The term ICT is also used
to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks with
computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
Ø LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF
EDUCATION WITH RESPECT TO SCIENCE (INDIAN CONTEXT)
Introduction
India
has great tradition in the field of education of pure and applied sciences.
Science has been a subject of study in India from the ancient period itself.
Unfortunately, most of the knowledge was lost during the medieval period.
Science Education in India has been greatly accelerated after independence.
Science and science education
during the British rule
The only aim of education including
that of science education was to turn out men competent to serve the civilian
administration. There was less facilities for Science education and research.
Even those few individuals educated in science lacked opportunities for either
gainful employment or for scientific research. They could only procure clerical
or teaching jobs.
It was only in 1857 that the
universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, modelled after the London
University, were established. Some foundations for basic sciences were expanded
and academic science in the universities received an attention.
It must be stressed that even under
such adverse conditions, globally competitive scientific research was carried
out by a few scientists like, C.V. Raman, M.N. Saha, S.N. Bose, D.N. Wadia,
P.C. Mahalanobis, S. R. Kashyap, Birbal Sahni, S.Ramanujan, S. Chandrashekhar.
Many of these were trained in India and carried out their research in Indian
universities.
Science and science education in
post-independence period
After
independence we realized the crucial importance of science for economic growth
and social transformation. In the context of establishing modern science and
technology as a live and vital force, the importance of science education
cannot be forgotten. Indeed, science education plays a crucial role in the
fields of scientific research and technological innovations.
Addressing
the then National Institute of Sciences (now INSA), Nehru stated, “Who indeed
can afford to ignore science today? At every turn, we have to seek it’s aid and
the whole fabric of the world is of its making.”
Raman,
one of India’s most eminent scientists said, “There is only one solution for
India’s economic problems and that is science, more science and still more
science.”
The
important landmarks in the development of Science education in India are the
following
Ø In
1953 the Secondary education commission
recommended the teaching of general Science as a compulsory subject in high
schools and higher secondary schools.
Ø All India Seminar on teaching of
science held in 1956 made serious discussions on almost all
the aspects concerning the teaching of Science in schools.
Ø Indian
parliament has adopted major policy statements relating to higher education and
Science & Technology development. These developments have been largely
guided by the Scientific Policy
Resolution of 1958. It is one of the most comprehensive science policy
documents ever approved. It envisaged the cultivation of science and scientific
research in all its aspects. It has helped the nation to build up an Science
& Technology base.
Ø The
constitutional amendment of 1976
places education including science and technology education in the concurrent
list which implies the joint responsibility of the central and the state
governments.
Ø The
Government of India has established Ministry
of Human Resource Development to function as an administrative ministry.
Ø By
establishing the University Grants
Commission and All India Council for
Technical Education, the government tried to improve the functioning of
higher education in science and technology respectively.
Ø The
University Grants Commission (UGC)
of India is a statutory organisation set up by the Union government in 1956,
charged with coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of
university education. It provides recognition to universities in India, and
disburses funds to such recognized universities and colleges.
Ø UGC’s Efforts in Promoting Excellence:
In recent years the UGC has launched a large number of programmes aimed at
promoting excellence. These include:
Ø autonomous
colleges
Ø faculty
improvement programmes
Ø Academic
staff colleges.
Ø centres
for advanced studies
Ø curriculum
development councils
Ø career
development programmes
Ø support
for strengthening infrastructure in S&T and removal of obsolescence in the
universities
Ø Identification
of universities with a potential and supporting them to become comparable with
the best anywhere.
Ø Inter-University Centres:
One of the most innovative steps taken by the UGC for promoting excellence was
the setting up of Inter-University Centres equipped with most modern
experimental facilities or providing access to national facilities such as
accelerators, nuclear reactors, etc to students and teachers from various
universities. Nuclear Science Centre at Delhi, Inter-University Centre for
Astronomy and Astrophysics at Pune and Inter-University Consortium for the
Department of Atomic Energy Facilities with headquarters at Indore have already
been set up and have been extremely useful.
Ø The
All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) is the statutory body and a national-level council for
technical education, under Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development. Established in November 1945 first as an advisory body and later
on in 1987 given statutory status by an Act of Parliament, AICTE is responsible
for proper planning and coordinated development of the technical education and
management education system in India. The AICTE accredits postgraduate and
graduate programs under specific categories at Indian institutions as per its
charter.
Ø Indian parliamentary and scientific
committee was set up in 1961 under the chairmanship of Sri
Lal Bahadur Shastri. The committee took up the study of science education in
schools.
Ø National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) established in 1961
has a separate department of science education and is giving much importance to
science education. It has set up a National Centre for Computer-based Education
to promote training and development of teachers and teacher-educators. The
centre will eventually sustain development of school teachers with a culture of
resistance to change and provide schools with IT based inexpensive learning
materials in support of the curriculum.
Ø The
Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)
are a group of autonomous public engineering and management institutes of
India. The IITs are governed by the Institutes of Technology Act, 1961 which
has declared them as "institutions of national importance", and lays
down their powers, duties, framework for governance etc. The Institutes of
Technology Act, 1961 lists sixteen institutes located at Bhubaneswar, Chennai,
Delhi, Gandhinagar, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Indore, Jodhpur, Kanpur, Kharagpur,
Mandi, Mumbai, Patna, Ropar, Roorkee and Varanasi. Each IIT is an autonomous
institution, linked to the others through a common IIT Council, which oversees
their administration. The IITs award degrees starting from B.Tech to Ph.D.
Ø Indian Education Commission
(1964-1966) recommended compulsory science
education as part of general education and stressed that methods of teaching
science should be modernized and that methods of teaching science should be
modernized and that Science teaching should be linked with agriculture and
technology.
Ø The
parliament approved in 1968, the Technology
Policy Resolution, which states that research and development together with
Science & Technology education and training of a high order will be
provided a important place. Basic research and building of the centres of
excellence was encouraged.
Ø For
Science education and training several institutions comprising the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT’s),
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), about a dozen institutes of national
importance, hundreds of universities, and over 8,000 colleges, exist. This
infrastructure has already made a substantial impact on the country’s
scientific, industrial and economic development.
Ø Indian Institute of Science (IISc)
is a premier university for scientific research and higher education located in
Bangalore, India. Established in 1909 with active support from Jamshetji Tata
it is also locally known as the "Tata Institute". It acquired the
status of a Deemed University in 1958. IISc is widely regarded as India's
finest institution in its field, and has made significant contribution to
advanced computing, space, and nuclear technologies.
Ø Some
of the academic research institutions such as IISc, Bangalore; TIFR, Mumbai;
IITs and a few universities such as Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Poona,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Central University, Hyderabad; and
Jadavpur., have developed global reputation and attract increasingly large
number of students from South East Asia, Middle East and Africa.
Ø The
role of Information Technology (IT) as an instrument for progress and
development has been acknowledged widely. A number of projects have been
sponsored in collaboration with leading institutions like IITs, IISc, Indira
Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), Nation Council for Science and
Technology (NCST), and Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS),
Pilani, with its long-term objective being promoting both IT based general
education and IT based education itself. IGNOU has several IT enabled courses
and is further promoting this culture.
Ø One
of the significant leads taken a few decades ago was People’s science movement (PSM) and education through it. The role
of PSM is not only restricted to communicating and simplifying science but also
to question every aspect of science-related activities, in particular issues
involved and intervening wherever necessary with people’s participation.
Ø Exploratory
- An Experiment in Learning by Doing Science : A unique institution called
Exploratory has been developed at Pune by a few dedicated educators.
Exploratory is neither a school or college laboratory nor a museum but is a
place where school and college children can explore and experiment, invent and
innovate and design and fabricate.
Ø Navodaya Vidyalayas:
Navodaya Vidyalayas were conceived in 1986 by Rajiv Gandhi, former Prime
Minister of India. The scheme aims at setting up well equipped well staffed
schools in rural areas, almost one in every district to provide better quality
science education to the talented children. These Navodaya Vidyalayas also
serve as a resource centre and a pacesetter for the other schools in the region
to follow. These Vidyalayas, 425 in number as of today, also aim at promoting
excellence and removing disparities.
Ø Advance
Centres for Science and Technology (ACST): A few senior
scientists and industrialists have proposed setting up advanced centres for
science and technology. These are composite science and technology education
and research centres. They seek to integrate education and research, science
and technology, pure and industrial research. These centres will provide a
5-year integrated programme leading to either an M.Sc. or M.Tech. degree. The
students will be given a common course in the first year, aimed at ensuring
good grounding in physical concepts, equipping them with mathematical
techniques and statistical procedures and exposing them to the current
excitement in life sciences.
Ø NPE (1968)
“Science
education should be an integral part of general education”
As a significant step in the history of education after independence, the
Government of India announced National Policy on Education in 1968. The
policy stressed the need for a radical reconstruction of the education system
in the country. NPE 1968 ensures that Science education should be an integral
part of general education.
Ø Ishwarbhai
Patel Committee (1977)
“Science
as a tool for productive process”
In June 1977 a Review Committee under the Chairmanship of Shri
Ishwarbhai J. Patel, Vice-Chancellor, Gujarat University, consisting of 30
members was appointed. The committee report considered Science as a tool for
productive process.
Ø National policy on Education (1986)
“Science
Education for all”
It has given much
stress on science education and has recommended that science education should
be designed to enable the learner to acquire problem solving and decision
making kill as well as the ability to correlate science with health,
agriculture, industry and other aspect of daily life. It has also been stressed
that concerted effort be made to extend Science education to all those who had
to remain outside the pale of formal education.
Ø NPE
(1992)
“Science as a subject at various
levels of education”
Considering the reports
of the two review committees (Ramamurthy review committee & Janardhana
Reddy Committee/CABE committee) NPE 1986 was revised in 1992. It considered
Science to be an essential subject at various levels of education.
Ø Yash
Pal Committee (1993)
“Problem
of curriculum load and science education”
In order to study
about the concerns regarding academic burden on students a committee headed by
Prof.Yash Pal was appointed by Govt of India. The committee gave its
recommendations in July 1993. The report was entitled as “Learning without
Burden”. The committee recommended life oriented science topics more important
than abstract science concepts.
Ø NCF 2005
NCERT has come up with three
different National Curriculum Frame works during the years 1986, 2000 &
2005. This documents currently provides the frame work for making syllabus,
text books and teaching practices within the school education programmes in
India.
Main
Features of NCF 2005
The document is divided into 5
areas
1) Perspective
2) Learning
and Knowledge
3) Curriculum
areas, school stages and assessment
4) School
and classroom environment
5) Systemic
Reforms
Positive
Features of NCF 2005
1) Brings
a fresh outlook in curriculum making
2) Tries
to breakdown the information overload in children.
3) Focus
in creativity and overall development of children.
Guiding
Principles of NCF 2005
1) Connecting
Knowledge life to outside school
2) Learning-away
from rote
3) Enriching
curriculum
4) Overall
development of children
5) Not
text book centric
6) Reduces
exam stress
7) Curriculum
from the context of Universal elementary Education
Aims
of Science Education
Science Education should enable the
learner to
1) Know
the facts and principles of Science and its applications, consistent with the
stage of cognitive development.
2) Acquire
the skills and understand the methods of science
3) Develop
a historical and developmental perspective and to view science as a social
enterprise
4) Acquire
the theoretical & practical knowledge for work
5) Relate
to the environment, local as well as global issues at the interface of Science
and technology.
6) Nurture
natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and creativity to science and technology
7) Imbibe
the values of science.
8) Cultivate
scientific attitude.
Features
of Science Curriculum in NCF 2005
1) Proposed
child centered education
2) Brings
a fresh outlook in curriculum making
3) Tries
to breakdown the information overload in children.
4) Focus
in creativity and overall development of children.
5) Avoid
content dominated curriculum
6) Importance
to creative expressions of students.
7) Activity
based learning
8) Utilization
of ICT in Science Education
Relevant
Section of NCF 2005 - Science Education as envisaged in NCF 2005
Basic
Criteria of validity of Science Curriculum-NCF 2005
Introduction
Science
is a dynamic, expanding body of knowledge, covering ever-new domains of
experience. In a progressive forward-looking society, science can play a truly
liberating role, helping people escape from poverty, ignorance and
superstitions.
The
advances in science and technology have transformed traditional fields of work
such as agriculture and industry, and led to the emergence of wholly new fields
of work. People today are faced with an increasingly fast-changing world where
the most important skills are flexibility, innovation and creativity. These
different aspects have to be kept in mind in shaping science education.
Good
science education is true to the child, true to life and true to science. This
simple observation leads to the following basic criteria of validity of a
science curriculum:
1) Cognitive validity:
This requires that the content, process, language and pedagogical practices of
the curriculum are age appropriate, and within the cognitive reach of the
child.
2) Content validity:
This requires that the curriculum must convey significant and correct
scientific information. Simplification of content, which is necessary for
adapting the curriculum to the cognitive level of the learner, must not convey
meaningless messages.
3) Process validity:
This requires that the curriculum should engage the learner in acquiring the
methods and processes that lead to the generation and validation of scientific
knowledge and nurture the natural curiosity and creativity of the child in
science. Process validity is an important criterion since it helps the student
in 'learning to learn' science.
4) Historical validity:
This requires that the science curriculum be informed by a historical
perspective, enabling the learner to appreciate how the concepts of science
evolve over time. It also helps the learner to view science as a social
enterprise and to understand how social factors influence the development of
science.
5) Environmental validity:
This requires that science be placed in the wider context of the learner's
environment, local and global, enabling him/her to appreciate the issues at the
interface of science, technology and society, and equipping him/her with the
requisite knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.
6) Ethical validity:
This requires that the curriculum promote the values of honesty, objectivity,
cooperation, and freedom from fear and prejudice, and inculcate in the learner
a concern for life and preservation of the environment.
Thus according to NCF
2005 a curriculum is valid only if it has the above mentioned six validities.
The
Curriculum at different Stages
NCF
2005 has clearly stated the objectives, content, pedagogy and assessment for
different stages of the curriculum. They are summarised below:
At
the primary stage, the child should
be engaged in joyfully exploring the world around and harmonizing with it. The
objectives at this stage are
1)
To nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment and
people),
2)
To have the child engage in exploratory and hands-on activities for acquiring the
basic cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation, classification,
inference, etc.
3)
To develop basic language skills: speaking, reading and writing not only for
science but also through science.
Science
and social science should be integrated as 'environmental studies' as at
present, with health as an important component. Throughout the primary stage,
there should be no formal periodic tests, no awarding of grades or marks, and
no detention.
At
the upper primary stage, the child
should be engaged in learning the principles of science through familiar
experiences, working with hands to design simple technological units and
modules (e.g. designing and making a working model of a windmill) and
continuing to learn more about the environment and health, including
reproductive and sexual health, through activities and surveys.
Scientific
concepts are to be arrived at mainly from activities and experiments. Science
content at this stage is not to be regarded as a diluted version of secondary
school science. Group activities, discussions with peers and teachers, surveys,
organisation of data and their display through exhibitions, etc. in schools and
the neighbourhood should be important components of pedagogy. There should be
continuous as well as periodic assessment (unit tests, term-end tests). The
system of 'direct' grades should be adopted. There should be no detention.
Every child who attends eight years of school should be eligible to enter Class
IX.
At
the secondary stage, students should
be engaged in learning science as a composite discipline in working with hands
and tools to design more advanced technological modules than at the upper
primary stage, and in activities and analyses on issues concerning the
environment and health. Systematic experimentation as a tool to discover/verify
theoretical principles, and working on locally significant projects involving
science and technology, are to be important parts of the curriculum at this
stage.
At
the higher secondary stage, science
should be introduced as separate disciplines, with emphasis on
experiments/technology and problem solving. Students may be given the option of
choosing the subjects of their interest freely, though it may not be feasible
to offer all the different subjects in every school. The curriculum load should
be rationalized. At this stage, the core topics of a discipline, taking into
account recent advances in the field, should be identified carefully and
treated with appropriate importance and depth. The tendency to cover a large
number of topics of the discipline superficially should be avoided.
Outlook
of Science Education-NCF 2005
Looking
at the science education in India, three issues stand out clearly.
1) Science
education is still far from achieving the goal of equity mentioned in our
Constitution.
2) Science
education in India develops competence, but does not encourage inventiveness
and creativity.
3) The
overpowering examination system.
How to overcome these
problems? (OR)
How to increase quality
of Indian Science Education?
The
science curriculum must be used as an instrument for achieving social change in
order to reduce the divide based on economic class, gender, caste, religion and
region. We must use textbooks as one of the primary instruments for equity,
since for a great majority of school-going children, as also for their
teachers, it is the only accessible and affordable resource for education.
We
must encourage alternative textbook
writing in the country within the broad guidelines laid down by the
National Curriculum Framework. These textbooks should incorporate activities,
observation and experimentation, and encourage an active approach to science,
connecting it with the world around the child, rather than information-based
learning.
Additionally,
materials such as workbooks, co curricular and popular science books, and
children's encyclopedia would enhance children's access to information and
ideas that need not go into the textbook, loading it further, but would enrich
learning At present there is a lack of such materials in regional languages.
The
development of science corners and providing access to science experimentation
kits and laboratories, in rural areas are also important ways of equitably
provisioning for science learning.
Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) is an important tool for bridging social
divides. ICT should be used in such a way that it becomes an opportunity
equaliser by providing information, communication and computing resources in
remote areas. ICT if used for connecting children and teachers with scientists
working in universities and research institutions would also help the students
to know clearly about scientists and their work.
For
any qualitative change from the present situation, science education in India
must undergo some changes.
1) Rote
learning should be discouraged.
2) Inquiry
skills should be supported and strengthened by language, design and
quantitative skills.
3) Schools
should place much greater emphasis on co-curricular and extra-curricular
activities aimed at improving investigative ability, inventiveness and
creativity, There should be a massive expansion of such activities along the
lines of the Children's Science Congress, being held successfully at present.
4) A
large-scale science and technology fair at the national level (with feeder
fairs at
cluster/district/state
levels) may be organised to encourage schools and teachers to participate in
this movement.
5) Examination
reform should be initiated as a national mission, supported by adequate funding
and high-quality human resources. The mission should bring teachers,
educationists and scientists on a common platform; launch new ways of testing
students that would reduce the high level of examination-related stress;
reduces the multiplicity of entrance examinations; and undertake research on
ways of testing multiple abilities other than formal scholastic competence.
These reforms, however,
fundamentally need the overarching reform of teacher empowerment. No reform,
however well motivated and well planned, can succeed unless a majority of
teachers feel empowered to put it in practice. With active teacher
participation, the reforms suggested above could have a cascading effect on all
stages of science teaching in our schools.
Ø KCF 2007
Kerala
Curriculum Framework 2007 has a significant position in
Educational History of Kerala.
Three
pillars of KCF
1) Critical Pedagogy-Social
dimension of constructivist, learner centered and process oriented classroom.
2) Issue based curriculum
(Issue based critical pedagogy) -
sensitizes the learner on social issues and instills in them a need to react to
these issues. Process of transforming the society by constructing knowledge.
3) Social constructivism-
Learning as a process of constructing knowledge in groups.
Relevant Sections of
KCF 2007-Science Education
Introduction
Science
Education in Kerala is facing a number of challenges. We are not able to device
a suitable approach for the learning of science and to accommodate latest
development and trends in the field. The experiments that are given in the
prevailing textbooks are not indented to make the learner discover facts and
they also limit the scope for enquiry. The relevance of doing experiments and
observations is either lost or undermined by the practice of giving in the
textbook all the details that are to be explored. This decreases the interest
of the learner and the scope for enquiry. Life around us is more complex and
different than what we see in our textbooks. In fact, science education does
not help in fostering the competency for analyzing and discussing possibilities
for solving problems that the individual and the society face. It also fails in
creating even the right attitude that is required for solving a problem. There
is no scope for developing scientific awareness. Science fails to become an
enabling area of study if the learner does not get access to the process of
learning science such as observation, data collection, data analysis, arriving
at conclusions etc. A learner, like a scientist, should get opportunities to
engage in different projects and to be familiarized with the process of
scientific enquiry.
Major criticisms
leveled against the prevailing science education
The
major criticisms leveled against the prevailing science education may include:
1) There
is a belief that the aim of science education is to transmit knowledge that has
already been gathered
2) The
learning process is neither process-oriented nor learner-centred, thus the
learners do not have the opportunity to engage in learning activities and
construct knowledge.
3) There
is a tendency to promote rote learning of concepts in science to excel in
examination.
4) The
innate curiosity and scientific temperament of the learner are yet to find
space.
5) Examination
centric textbooks and learning process.
6) Incongruence
between the content, and the level of the learner.
7) Scientific
temperament and science literacy are not addressed adequately.
8) Learning
of science fails to become interesting and challenging to the learner.
9) Construction
of knowledge has not been duly recognized.
10) Science
education has yet to become life related.
11) Mechanisms
for empowering learners in the pedagogic practices are yet to be strengthened.
12) The
assessment of effectiveness of teaching science is completely neglected.
Aims
of Science Education
The main aim of science
education is to equip a student with a scientific mind which will enable
him/her to deal with the problems logically and to take decisions. Along with
these, it is necessary to take into account the interests and aptitudes of the
learners while designing the curriculum.
The aims of science
education include:
1) Development
of scientific temperament and its application in daily life.
2) Engagement
in scientific methods like observation, experimentation, data collection,
interpretation of data, analysis, theorising, examining for construction of
knowledge.
3) Nurturing
the ability to examine scientifically the problems of daily life as well as
social issues and seeking logical solutions.
4) Recognising
and developing one’s own interests and abilities in technical and vocational
fields.
5) Encouraging
the development of logical thinking
6) Imbibing
a humanistic outlook and developing a world view based on it.
7) Recognising
the importance of understanding historical development of ideas.
8) Nurturing
lateral thinking ability for enabling the learners to look at things from
different perspectives and to seek new solutions.
9) Developing
scientific literacy that provides for building awareness of scientific process.
Changing
Approaches.
The approach of science
education has to be changed to achieve the aims stated above. The idea that
process of learning science is as important as the content of science came to
the scene. But now importance is given to the view that there are other areas
to be considered apart from process and content. They are:
1)
Knowledge
Domain
Every student of
science ought to be aware of the latest theories and developments in the field
of science. This accounts for facts, ideas, laws, the present status of
learning and the correlation of science and social issues. These could be
accomplished by observation and experiment, discussion, debate, project work
and reference.
2)
Science
Process Domain
This area helps to understand
how scientists construct knowledge and how the learner can do it by
himself/herself. A process could be defined as a series of steps that aim at a
particular result. The ability to identify new ideas and analyze them to reach
a conclusion is termed as process skills. Process skills are developed by
collecting ideas and proof and by arriving at conclusions after deeper
analysis.
There are certain
process skills that the learner have to possess in order to engage in
scientific study. They are:
• observation
• data collection and
documentation
• classification
• measurement and
charting
• data analysis
• engaging in
experiments
• identifying variables
• questioning
• generalisation
• problem solving
• arriving at a
hypothesis
• decision-making
• communication
• predicting and
inferring
• handling tools
3)
Creativity
Domain
The learner should be
given chances to explore new paths in the acquisition of scientific knowledge.
The learner should:
• develop the potential
for visualization
• develop the skill to
design an experiment
• correlate ideas and
facts in a new manner
• find an alternative
utility for materials
• find answers for
problems and puzzles
• start fantasizing
• design tools and
equipment
• start dreaming
• think differently
4)
Attitudinal
Domain
The essential aim of
science education is to create a change in attitude and develop new ideas
regarding values. Even after acquiring new ideas and process skills, if there
is no change in the learner's attitude towards the society, science education will
have no practical meaning. Science education should try to bring in a change in
aspects like attitude, values and decision-making. Therefore, science education
has to take into consideration these aspects as well:
• The learner ought to
develop an inclination towards scientific knowledge and science education
• He/she should develop
faith in one’s ability
• He/she ought to
understand and value human emotions
• He/she ought to be
sympathetic to the others and their attitude
5)
Application
Domain
If the learner is not
able to apply the knowledge that he/she has gathered, there is no meaning in
imparting science education. If the practical level of science education could
not be related to life, the learner will not find it to be of any significance.
The elements of
Application Domain are:
• observing science
concepts in daily life.
• making use of the
concepts and skills that are imbibed for solving issues related to technology.
• forming ideas about
the scientific principles behind the working of tools and equipment used at
home.
• making use of the
process of science to solve the issues in daily life.
• developing ability to
evaluate the events related to science.
• taking scientific
decisions in matters of food, health and life style.
• developing an inter-disciplinary
approach.
The
Nature of Science and Science Education
By interacting with the
society, a child develops a variety of notions about the nature of science. The
personal experience of the learner through suitable learning activities
provides him/her proper awareness on this. A mere learning of scientific ideas
and theories will not enable the learner to understand the nature of science.
Acquisition of scientific ideas will not, by themselves, develop a scientific
perspective.
Experiences that facilitate
this should be provided to the learner right from the beginning of his/her
schooling.
At the beginning stage,
the student should go through concrete experiences that help him/her get
acquainted with various aspects of nature. This does not mean that the
curriculum should avoid abstract ideas. A learner who goes through a proper
learning experience would gradually gain processing skills and the ability to
internalize abstract ideas.
A learner who possesses
the spirit of enquiry should be encouraged to discuss and share his/her
findings with the peer group. This will enable the learner to internalize the
concrete experiences and to assimilate the abstract ideas.
Presenting scientific
facts through textbooks or lectures is not a suitable method for science
education. At every point during the lesson the student should feel like asking
'How do you know that is right?' It
is only when such questions arise that the curriculum and the textbook and the
teaching are justified.
Areas
of science education that need to be evaluated
The traditional method
of class tests is not sufficient to evaluate the child. All the abilities of
the child should be subjected to evaluation. Multiple choice questions are not
suitable to evaluate mental processing of the highest order. The following
elements have to be considered while evaluating the learner:
• Learners should not
be evaluated fully by the written mode of examination. Skills developed by the
process of science education including the ability to do experiments should be
evaluated
• The relevance of
multiple choice questions in evaluating science learning has been widely
criticized. They are inadequate to evaluate the higher order mental processes
• Evaluation should
give importance to assessing performance in which skills of the hands and the
mind are at work
• In science education,
it is difficult to separate the process of evaluation from the
teaching-learning process
The following areas of science
education need to be evaluated:
• experiments •
the process of experimentation and observation
• projects •
skills that exhibit a scientific temperament
• attitude •
outdoor activities
• journals •
the use of library
• co-operative tests •
self-learning
• concept mapping •
drawings
• problem solving •
research
• debate/group
discussions.
References
1) Mohan,
R (1995). Innovative science teaching
for physical science. New Delhi: Prentice Hall
2) Sharma,R.C.
(1985) Modern Science Teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
3) Mathew,T.K.
& Mollykutty (2012) Science Education-Theoretical Bases of Teaching &
Pedagogic Analysis, Chengannur: Rainbow Publications
4) Sivarajan,K &Faziluddin,A.(2005) Science
Education. Calicut University : Central
Co operative stores
5) Das,
R.C. (1985) Science teaching in schools. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
6) http:www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch4.pdf
7) NPE
Report(1968)
8) Ishwarbhai Patel Committee Report(1977)
9) NPE
Report(1986)
10) NPE
Report(1992)
11) Yash Pal committee Report
12) NCF Report(2005)
13) KCF Report(2007)
