Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 04
FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION
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Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
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Education System in India during Islamic Rule
The Mohammedan invasion of India in the eleventh century marked the commencement of great changes not only in the social and political life of the country, but also in the sphere of education and learning. The
alien rules took the initiative for the promotion of Islamic learning.
Therefore, the system of education prevalent in the country deprived of the encouragement and support of the state and depended mostly on the charities of the public.
During medieval period education was not considered a social duty or a state function It was merely a personal or family affair. The ambition of a scholar was to visit Mecca and return with a Mecca degree which was held in high esteem in India for procuring high offices. The higher Muslim education was imparted through the medium of Arabic and Persian. Persian language continued to hold the honoured place as it
was the court language.
The demand for education was primarily confined to that minority of population which embraced the religion of Islam. As Persian was the court language, the demand for education in that language considerably increased. But the demand for Hindi learning decreased substantially on account of the attitude of the rulers and change in state religion and language.
Objectives of Education:
The aims and objectives of Islamic education were multifarious and were closely connected with religion. It was considered a religious duty to receive and impart instruction. The objectives of education differed with different rulers. Akbar and Aurangzeb had quite different aims than that of other rulers concerning education. While Akbar aimed at organizing the nation through the implementation of a new system of education, on the contrary the sole objective of Aurangzeb was to spread Islamic education and culture by destroying Hindu culture and
education.
However the objectives of Islamic education can be described as follows:
Acquisition of Knowledge:
The chief aim of Islamic education was to spread the light of knowledge. According to the Prophet “seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave” and “acquire knowledge even if it be in China”.
“Knowledge is nectar and salvation is impossible without it.” He attached supreme importance to the acquisition of knowledge. Prophet Mohammed preached to the people that distinction between essential duty and wrong action, religion and irreligion could be accomplished only though knowledge and as such remarked, “acquisition of knowledge is incumbent upon all the faithful men as well as women”.
Hence Muslims have always held learning and education high honour and veneration, and shown respect to their scholars and learned men. However, the objectives of education by the Muslims were almost entirely intellectual. It was gaining of knowledge and training of mind.
Propagation of Islam:
The aim of education was to propagate Islam religion by following the dictates of the great religious personalities. The spread of Islam was considered as religious duty. There was a notion that only a religious
propagator could be Ghazi or martyr. Therefore, through education Islam was spread in India. Educational institutions were attached to mosques and from the very beginning of academic career students were acquainted with the fundamental principles of Islam and study of Quran. The tenets of Islamic religion were taught in the form of philosophy, literature and history in Madrasahs.
Being promoted by religious sentiments the Muslim rulers in India patronized education. Because according to Mohammed “No present or gift of a parent, out of all the gifts and present to a child, is superior to a good liberal education”. Muslims regarded general education as an integrate part of Islamic education. Being inspired by fanaticism they
destroyed Hindu institutions and erected mosques, Madrasahs on their ruins. The followers of the prophet held the ink of scholar holier than the blood of a martyr. Students were made to cram the verses of the
Islamic religious scriptures.
Islamic Social Morals Material Progress:
A special system of morals based on Islamic education was evolved. Teacher laid emphasis on the inculcation of moral and spiritual values among students. This was reflected in their thinking and living. In the
observance of the rules of conduct rigorous practice was provided.
Muslims also wanted to achieve materialistic prosperity through education. In order to get high posts, honorable rank, medals, grants of ‘Jagirs’ people were motivated for Islamic education. The educated were held in high esteem and kings and emperors encouraged the scholars by appointing them as commander of the army, Kazi (Judge) Vazir (Minister) and various other lucrative posts. With a view to reap these benefits many Hindus allowed to receive Islamic education. So gaining of material prosperity was inherent in the system of education.
Organisation of Political and Social System:.
The objectives of education was somewhat tinged with political motives and interests. The Muslim rulers had a great hand in the management and administration of education. So through education they wanted to strengthen and develop their political system. As the Mohammedans entered to a different civilization, and a different culture, it became indispensable for them to create some such political circumstances for
strengthening their role in the country.
Preservation and Spread of Muslim Culture:
Muslim educational system worked for the preservation and transmission of culture. Study of the authentic work was compulsory. Rules and regulations pertaining to their culture were strictly followed.
The centers of learning situated in different parts of the country bear eloquent testimony to this fact. Besides, development of right thinking, development of humility, intellectual eminence and development of the self as a useful man of the world were the purpose of learning.
Educational Institutions:
Primarily Islamic education was divided mainly into two stages:
(i) Maktab (primary grade); and
(ii) Madrasha (higher grade).
Maktab:
The term ‘Maktab’ is derived from Arabic ‘Kulub” mid means a place where writing is taught. The ‘Maktabs’ were it attached to mosques.
There was a special method of admission to the Maktabs. Similar to the Brahmanical system, the education among Mulammedans used to commence with the formal observance of a ceremony known as
‘Bismillah’.
The ceremony was observed when the child was four years, four months and four days old. At the beginning of the academic career the child was taught the script through the help of eye and ear. This was followed by the study of the thirteenth chapter of the Quran which
contained verses of daily prayer and ‘Fatiha’ (Verses recited at the time of burial ceremony) Considerable attention was paid for the correct pronunciation.
Pupils were devoting some time for writing and cramming the Persian grammar and certain poetic works. Besides these, elementary arithmetic, mode of conversation, correspondence etc. were also included in the primary education. Though the script of the alphabet was Persian, yet Urdu too formed one of the chief subjects of study. By the time the students finished their primary education they got some
practical knowledge.
Under the primary grade ‘Maktab’ there appeared to be four types of schools for the Muslim children. The Quran schools which were attached to the mosques, taught the recitation of the holy book without
perhaps understanding it. But it did not profess to teach writing and arithmetic. The second was the Persian school where poetical works of the renowned writers of Islamic culture were taught. The third were the Persian Quran schools which combined in them the characteristics of both types of schools mentioned above. The last type was the Arabic School which was meant for the adults.
Madrasha:
In the medieval period higher Islamic education was imparted in the Madrasah. The Madrasahs were maintained out of the bounty of kings and noble men. These institutions were manned by the erudite teachers and eminent scholars. Teaching work in different subjects was conducted through lectures.
After completing the study at Maktab, the students were eligible for the admission to Madrasah. No formal ceremony was observed on this occasion. The private managing body or respectable benefactors were conducting the administration of the Madrasahs.
There was provision for both secular and religious education in the Madrasah. The total duration of the course was ten to twelve years in all. The medium of instruction in these institutions was the court
language, Persian. But the study of Arabic was made compulsory for the Muslim students.
The seculars education included the subjects Arabic Grammar, Prose, Literature, Logic, Philosophy, Law, Astrology, Arithmetic, History,
Geography, Medicine, Agriculture, Composition , etc. The Muhammedans generally followed in the field of handicraft and architecture the traditional Indian system.
The religious education included a comprehensive and profound study of the Quran, commentary on Quran traditions of the prophet Muhammad, Islamic law and sometimes the tenets of Sufi creed. At the beginning, stress was given to secular education by Muhammedans. As time went on they wanted to increase the number of their tribe and to this end, they converted many Hindus into Muslims and initiated them into Islam.
In course of time religious education dominated the scene as the convert new Muslim needed religious education. As the emperor Akbar adopted the policy of religious tolerance, the prevalent curriculum was
modified during his reign. Because he anticipated some danger to the safety of his empire in providing only Islamic education to the Hindus.
Moreover, the prevalent system of education appeared to be quite unsuitable to practical life. Akbar established colleges for the Hindu children where they were taught Hindu religion, philosophy and literature along with Persian.
With a view to availing themselves of the benefit of State service the Hindus evinced interest in studying Persian. In this connection the name of Raja Todarmall deserves special mention. Not being satisfied
with the contemporary system of education emperor Akbar wanted to bring about improvement in the system by broadening the scope of the
curriculum and making it more suitable and beneficial to the practical needs of life.
In Ain-I-Akbari, Abul Fazal has given the following account about the content of contemporary education. “Everybody ought to road books on
moral, arithmetic, the notation peculiar to arithmetic, agriculture, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, physiognomy, household matters, the rules of government, medicine, logic, the tibbiriyazi and Elahi
sciences, and history; all of which may be gradually acquired. In studying Sanskrit students ought to learn the Vyakarana, Nyaya, Vedanta and Patanjali. No one should be allowed to neglect these things which the present time requires”. Akbar on his part, had also aimed at making education more useful practical and substantial. It is evident that after Akbar, the educational curriculum and system had deteriorated. That is why Aurangzeb was so very eager to improve the system of education by examining the defects
and short comings. He had strong faith in such system of education which would prepare the child for the practical aspects of life. He was not in favour of the idea that the precious time of the children should be wasted in learning only ancient and classical literature. In reality he was in favour of imparting higher education of more practical utility by including in the curriculum the study of history, geography, philosophy, art of warfare, politics and diplomacy. As Aurangzeb’s attention was more towards the education of princes than to that of masses and consequently subjects of practical utility could not be
included in the curriculum of general education.
The Madrasahs of medieval period could well be compared to the colleges of modem times. Then the system of education was bookish and theoretical owing to the predominance, of higher Arabic and
Persian literature, grammar, prosody, poetry, etc. Education was imparted simply for the sake of education and not for the sake of life.
Like the Buddhist and Brahmanical system of education, the basis of Islamic education too was religious. During this period law was based on religious works as the Quran and long-standing traditions and conventions. In some branches of learning Islamic education was of a lower standard and less developed in comparison to ancient Indian
system of education.
During medieval period domestic system of teaching was prevalent and the educational work was done by the private teacher. There were certain families of hereditary Muslim scholars whose reputation drew
students from different parts of the country. These scholars were imparting highest instruction in their respective educational centers to the students in their field of specialization.
These educational centers had to depend mostly upon the capacity of the individual teacher and his reputation. As it was the family affairs of
the private teacher, it was breaking up when the family ceased to produce the scholars. Another agency of education was the wandering scholars and preachers who moved from place to place and attracted huge audience.
The poetical symposia also contributed in their own way to the advancement of learning. At the completion of the studies no examination was conducted. The students were leaving the institutions when the teacher considered them proficient in any branch of learning.
Successful completion of the study under a distinguished teacher was considered enough qualification of a student.
Method of Teaching:
The method of teaching in the Maktabs was mainly oral. Cramming and memorization was prevalent in this period. Children were learning verses from Quran by rote. Writing and mathematics were taught at the
later stage. Monitorial system was introduced and the monitor held the charge of the class in the absence of the teacher. Realizing the short comings of the prevalent method, Emperor Akbar suggested improvement in the method of teaching.
It is written in Ain-I- Akbari “In every country but especially in Hindustan, boys are kept for years at school where they learn the Consonants and Vowels. A great portion of the life of the students is wasted by making them read many books. His Majesty orders that every school boy should first learn to write the letters of the alphabet and also learn to trace forms. He ought to learn the shape and name of each letter which may be done in two days, when the boy should
proceed to write the joined letters. They may be practiced for a week after which the boy should learn some prose and poetry by heart, and then commit to memory some verses to the praise of God or moral
sentences, each written separately. Care is to be taken that he learns to understand everything himself, but the teacher may assist him a little.
He then ought, for some time, daily practice in writing a hemistich; the verse, the former lesson. If this method of teaching be adopted a boy will learn in a month, or even in a day what it took others years to
understand, so much so that people will get quite astonished”.
Thus from the written account it is revealed that Akbar introduced a scientific method of teaching. But this method could not last long and gradually died out. Aurangzeb also complained for the waste of time in
learning the alphabet of Arabic and Persian and a long and continuous task of learning words.
At the higher educational institution, Madrasah, the teaching was done through lecture followed by discussion. Even at this stage also oral method of teaching was in, vogue. Along with these methods, students were encouraged in developing the habit of self study by consulting books. In different science subjects there were provisions for practical and experimental work.
With a view to all round development of the student’s individual attention was paid. In Madrasahs Analytical and Inductive method were also adopted. Besides, formal disputations upon important issues were the usual features of royal courts. Under Islamic system of
education, an attempt was made to understand the psychological working of the child’s mind. But severe corporal punishment was inflicted on guilty students and teachers were free to exercise their individual discretion in matters of punishment.
Discipline, moral conduct and humility were regarded as the essential attributes of students and in the teaching, learning process, these things were emphasized. For misconduct, breach of discipline, neglect in study and immoral act students were publicly caned, whipped or beaten with fists. On the other hand rewards were given to encourageable and intelligent students of unimpeachable conduct. At the end of academic career there was provision of awarding certificates and medals.
Teacher-Taught Relationship:
Under Islamic system of education, the teacher was held in high esteem and enjoyed an unique position in the society. The social status of the teachers was high and they were generally men of character who had the confidence and respect of their fellowmen. “Their integrity was absolutely unshakable. They occupied a high position in society and though their emoluments were small, they commanded universal respect and confidence”, remarked S.N. Zaffar in his book entitled
“Education in Muslim India”.
The relation between teacher and pupil was similar to that which existed in the case of Brahmanical education. In residential institutions both teachers and pupils resided under the same roof and reaped the
advantages of closest contact. A teacher was never confronted with any serious problem of discipline. Pupils were humble, submissive and obedient owing to the high honour and prestige of teacher in the
society. Service of teachers was regarded as the sacred duty of pupils.
It was a conviction that true knowledge could be attained only through the blessings of the preceptor. The monitorial system, in which the more advanced pupils were associate with the teachers in the work of
teaching, is a special feature of Indian education and it was in practice both in Muslim as well as in Hindu schools. One scholar remarked “I am the slave of him who had taught me even one letter”. This statement
reveals how the teachers were honoured during medieval period.
State Patronage and Growth of Education:
The Muslims first appeared in India in the eighth century A.D., but the real storm of Muslim aggression burst on India under Mahmud of Ghazni. He promoted the cause of education in his own native country
with the booty obtained from India, but did not put any efforts for advancement of Indian education. It was Muhammad Ghori (A.D. 1174—A.D. 1206) who laid the foundations of the Muslim dominion in
India.
He destroyed some temples at Ajmer and to have built in their places mosques and colleges. Some of the rulers of Slave Dynasty, destroyed Hindu temples and built many mosques which were centers not only of
religious worship but also of education. Iltutmish, Reziya and Balban were great patrons of arts and literature and kept in their courts religionists, artists, historians and poets.
During the reign of Ala-ud-Din Khilji, education received a tottering blow. He withdrew state financial aid from educational institutions and even confiscated the endowments which had been given for its supports
by his predecessors. By this time, however, Delhi had become a great center of learning and continued to be so in spite of the discouraging policy of Ala-ud-Din.
There was a considerable progress of Muslim education under the Tughluq monarchs. Muhammad Tughluq was a man of great learning who gave great encouragement and help to scholars. His court
sheltered many a poet, philosopher, physician and logician. The wild scheme he projected of building a capital at Daulatabad caused great misery and was a great setback to Delhi as a center of education and
learning. During the reign of Firoz Shah, Delhi had grown into a famous educational center.
He was more successful in his attempt to find a New Delhi, which he called Firozabad. This city became famous as a literary center. Being an educated man, Firoz Tughluq gave great encouragement to scholars
and bestowed gifts and pensions upon them. He had a special interest in educating the young slaves and was spending large sums for their support and education. According to Muslim historian Ferishta, “Firoz built no less than thirty colleges with mosques attached. In the college which he founded at his capital students and professors all lived together in the institutions, and stipends and scholarships were given for their support”.
However, it is evident that under this sovereign, considerable advancement had been made in the education of Muslims. Himself being a keen student of history, he wrote is autobiography named”
Fatuhat-i-Firoz Shah”. He had a very big library with precious books. He took initiative of translating some books into Persian. Thus, owing to his personal liking for education, Muslim education, politics, religion
and literature made remarkable progress during his tenure.
During the reign of Sikandar Lodi, Agra, which had been made the capital by his predecessor, came into prominence as a literary center. It
was about that time that the study of Persian by Hindus began in earnest. The intercourse between the Muslims and Hindus led to the
formation of a new language which came to be called Urdu. After the death of Firoz Shah, many of the provincial rulers under him became
independent. They too made creditable efforts to promote education in their own small states. In Southern India, the rulers of Brahamani
dynasty established many Maktabs and Madrashas. Education was also encouraged and colleges built in Bijapur, Golkonda, Malwa, Jaunpur,
Multan, Gujarat, etc. Besides, the patronage and encouragement of learing and the
foundation of colleges and schools were also undertaken by many of the nobility and gentry. By the time, the Moghul emperors began to reign
in India, there already existed great many Muslim colleges and schools in various parts of India. Though himself a poet and scholar, Babur (A.D.I526-A.D. 1530) could do nothing during the short term of his
reign for the spread of education. His son Humayun, founded a very big and famous Madrasah at Delhi. He gave encouragement to learned men. A Midrash was also established on the roof of the tomb of Humayun. Once upon a time, that was a prominent institution, where influential teachers were appointed for teaching. Sher Shah (1540 A.D. to 1545 A.D.) opened a Madrasah at Naranaul and made provisions for mass education. At that time, these Indian rulers meant the term ‘education’ mainly to Islamic education which
included study of Quran, reading, writing and elementary arithmetic. Akbar, (1556-A.D. 1605 A.D.) the most brilliant of all the Mughul emperors was deeply interested in the work of spreading education and learning. He was a patron not only of Muslim learning but also of Hindu learning. He built many colleges at Fatepur Sikri, Agra and other places. He was very tolerant in religious matters and made
arrangements for Hindu youth to be educated at the Madrasahs along with the Muslims.
There was unprecedented progress of education, fine arts, literature, philosophy, history etc. during his period. His court sheltered many erudite scholars. He patronized religious scholars of various creeds and
thus contributed to the growth of learning and cultural harmony between different sections of the society. He wanted to bring about reformation in the traditional system of education. Jahangir, son of Akbar, was a lover of books and great patron of the art
and painting. He repaired some colleges which for thirty years had been desolate and inhabited by birds and beasts. He made a law that, when any wealthy man died without having an heir, his property was to
escheat to the crown and money obtained from its proceeds should be utilized on the construction and repairing of Madrasahs and promotion of education.
Shah Jahan (1627-A.D. to 1658 A.D.) patronized music, painting, sculpture, etc. But he did not make any remarkable attempts in the direction of the promotion and expansion of education. However, he did not 11-verse the policy of his predecessors in the encouragement of learning. During his reign a college was founded at Delhi close by the great mosque of the city and another college in Delhi was repaired and
re-established. His son Dara Shikoh was an erudite scholar and well versed in Hindu Philosophy. He translated many Sanskrit works into ersian, among others the Upanishadas.
During the period of Shah Jahan, a French traveller named Bernier came to the India. He has given a very disappointing account of the contemporary education. He writes, “A profound and universal ignorance is the natural consequence of such a state of society as I has
endeavoured to describe. Is it possible to establish in Hindustan academics and colleges properly endowed? Where shall we seek for founders? Or should they be found where the scholars are? Where are the individuals whose property is sufficient to support their children at college or it such individual exist, who would venture to display so clear a proof of wealth?”
According to critics the statement made by Bernier appears to be a gross exaggeration and a fallacy. No doubt, he judged the state of affairs in India too much by European standards and relied loti much on casual observation for the formation of his opinion. However, he omitted to refer to those traditional Indian educational centers where secular and spiritual education of a higher order was being imparted on
a large scale without the state help, depending merely on private enterprise.
It is true that Islamic education had not attained universality. I or the purpose of organised, systematic expansion of education and for its administration there was nothing like the State Education Department. Spread of education was regarded as the religious duty and the money
spent for the cause of education was considered to have been spent on charity.
Aurangzeb (1658-A.D. to 1707 A.D.) was a strict and orthodox Muslim and was in favour of Muslim education. He had demolished many Hindu temples and educational institutions and erected Mosques,
Maktabs and Madrasahs on their ruins. Aurangzeb founded a large number of colleges and schools and allotted funds for giving pecuniary help to the Muslim students, learned men and scholars according to their abilities and qualifications. In spite of his narrow and fanatic views, Aurangzeb was a learned scholar of
Turkish, Arabic and Persian. Knowledge of the Quran was at the tip of his tongue. Aurangzeb introduced improvement in quality as well as quantity of education. By amending the curriculum he made education more suitable to the practical aspects of life. He established state Maktabs and Madrashas
and spread Islamic religious doctrines and education. He enriched the state library with innumerable Islamic books. Mostly he restricted his educational efforts only to the education of the Mohammedans.
After the death of Aurangzeb the glory of the Moghul empire began rapidly to wane. Even during the reign of Aurangzeb the symptoms of the downfall had become evident. When anarchy, chaos, confusion
were rampant, it was futile and quite useless to expect the rulers to devote their attention to the expansion of education. It is true that during the reign of Aurangzeb’s successor, two to three Madrasahs were
founded at Delhi. In different provinces wealthy people had established Maktabs and Madrasahs. More or less the secular village schools for both Mohammedans and Hindus continued to exist.
Though the successors of Aurangzeb tried in a feeble way to keep the torch of education aglow but could hardly make their influence felt in the eighteenth century. The Imperial Library, which had been built up
by the interest of many sovereigns, was carried away by Nadir Shah to Persia. The conquests of Marathas and English rulers led to the downfall of the seats of Muslim education in India.
The education imparted in Maktabs and Madrasahs was not for the masses but was meant specially for those who wanted to be benefited by it. Primarily it was confined to that minority of the population which
embraced the religion of Islam. During the entire period of 700 years of Mohammedan rule, the rulers were so much engrossed with war fare that they could not devote undistracted attention to the improvement
and expansion of education. As a matter of fact, the educational institutions established by the noble and wealthy class of the society proved to stand on a more ruin footing than the State educational institutions.However by the end of this period, the entire country was shrouded with dark evil of ignorance due to the collapse of the educational
system for want of proper patronage. In spite of this, the extent and influence of the Muslim education in India was by no means inconsiderable. It continued to grow through the momentum it had gained in the past and through popular support.
It was the prevalent system of education which broke-down the caste barriers, as Muslim schools were opened to all and that it promoted the cultural unity of India. The fluctuating and uncertain character of the
educational system was mainly due to the result of despotic rule which indulged in sudden impulses, and afforded no certainty of the continuance of any new undertaking. Moreover, the poverty of the country and the rapacity of officials shifted the popular demand for
education.
During the period education was almost alternately helped and hindered, because the “Emperor’s taste was the barometer of the then literary atmosphere”. Since the Moghul kings were more enlightened
than their predecessors, attention began to be paid to the systematization of educational facilities and the state made it almost an item of its duty and patronage.
Sources of Finance:
In those days, the education of the future citizen of the country was not the responsibility of the state. Therefore, no portion of the state revenue was earmarked on the establishment and maintenance of
schools and colleges. In order to give impetus to the cause of education, state financial assistance was given to it as religious charities. Because, then education was considered as a handmaid to religion.
As a policy of religious tolerance, when Akbar arranged for the education of Hindu Youths in Muhammad Madrasahs, systematic financial assistance to education was introduced. The successive rulers followed the system of Akbar with slight modification. Therefore, the state assistance to the promotion of learning came in form of rewards and stipends to scholars according to their abilities
and qualifications, the construction and repair of educational institutions, sometimes provision for the education of special communities, endowments and Jagirs to educational institution and literary men.
Besides state aid, the nobility and gentry also contributed mighty little to encourage education. Sometimes, wealthy persons and princes out of
their own accord or a desire to please the sovereign, contributed liberally towards the cause of education. But this type of munificence was fluctuating with the royal barometer. The common man’s contribution to the cause of education came in the form of gifts and
charities. Though small individually, but collectively they were a considerably important source of income. Sometimes, the teachers could ask and accept payment for instruction in the Quran. In the Muslim law, the fees to the teachers were actually recognized. The teacher used to look upon them not as professional emoluments but as gifts. At the successful completion of the academic course, the students or their parents often gave small offerings to the teachers.
The main items of recurring expenditure in the educational institutions were the salaries of teachers, expenses on the maintenance of students, scholarships and stipends. Besides, the persons employed for copying the manuscripts and illustrating the books were also paid. The non- recurring expenditure included the construction and repair of buildings
and purchase of manuscripts etc. In medieval period, the financing of education showed no improvement over that of the previous period.
The endowments, spasmodic state assistance, private munificence and casual fees were the sources of educational finance. During the period the financial system of the Hindu educational institutions were greatly disturbed. All the important centers of learning were looted and destroyed. The Hindu Kings did not dare to help Hindu institutions for fear of incurring the displeasure and wrath of the Sultan at Delhi. The vital to the promotion of any system of education is state encouragement. But during medieval period, when the emperor himself was virtually the state, one can well imagine the important role played by him for good and evil of educational developments. However, during the period the old established educational system declined impoverished for want of state patronage and a new system was
transplanted in an uncertain climate of fitful state benevolence, which before reaching maturity received several rude shakings.
