Educational Studies UNIT-1-post 05
FULL STUDY MATERIALS FOR UGC NET EDUCATION
Prepared by
Sabarish P
(MSc Physics, MEd, NET)
Precise notes.
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WESTERN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY-NATURALISM
Introduction
Mr. Robert R. Rusk of the University of Glasgow in his book 'The Philosophical Basis of Education' writes: There are three great schools of philosophical thought— Naturalism, Idealism and Scepticism. Scepticism, while it has had a stimulating influence on general philosophical development, has no value for the philosophy of education, for it tends to paralyse action, and the educative process being essentially a practical activity resolves the perplexities propounded by the sceptic simply by ignoring them. We are then left with Naturalism and Idealism as the chief philosophical doctrines having educational implications and significance. To these should perhaps be added Pragmatism, a fairly recent development, which combines the methods of Naturalism with the conclusions of Idealism. In today's world, the above concept concerning schools of philosophical thought, because of further classification of philosophical thought, deserves to be modified and understood as follows:
• Naturalism,
• Idealism,
• Realism,
• Pragmatism,
• Logical Empiricism, and
• Existentialism.
Definition of Naturalism
To make the meaning of Naturalism more clear, i am giving some definitions as under:
(1) "Naturalism is a system whose silent characteristic is the exclusion of whatever is spiritual or indeed whatever is transcendental of experience—from our philosophy of Nature and Man." —Joyce
(2) "Naturalism is not science but an assertion about science. More specifically it is the assertion that scientific knowledge is final, leaving no room for extra-
scientific or philosophical knowledge." —R.B. Perry
(3) "Naturalism ... is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the manipulation of the actual life of the educated." —J.S. Ross Joyce defines naturalism as "a system whose salient characteristic is the exclusion of whatever is spiritual, or indeed, whatever is transcendental of experience from our philosophy of nature and man." In
other words, naturalism is an attitude of mind which denies the existence of an order transcending nature and sense experience. It believes that nature alone contains the normal and only final answer to all philosophical problems.
Thus it is a type of philosophy to which nature is the whole reality. It is not prepared to accept the supernatural or other worldly. It regards human life as a part of the scheme of nature. That which is hidden and is not known is only a part of Nature itself; and science has to find it out. Ward says that naturalism is the "doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter, and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme." Naturalism is the philosophical position adopted wittingly or unwittingly by those who approach philosophy from the purely scientific standpoint. They tend to carry the natural laws into the spiritual world and to apply to the whole of experience conceptions and categories valid only in their restricted sphere; they tend to reduce the distinctively rational or spiritual factors in human experience to purely physical or biological functions. At one time physical concepts were regarded as absolute and ultimate; 'matter' in its crude form, as then conceived by physicists, was regarded as the first word and final explanation of all the problems of mind and existence.
Biology superseded Physics, and assumed the role of
dictating to philosophy on all questions affecting life and conduct. It regarded man as an animal—and nothing more; what could not be interpreted in biological terms was conveniently ignored. Human nature was viewed exclusively from the natural or animal standpoint, and for the great achievements of man in the spiritual realm, attained through his creative capacity, no explanation was thought to be necessary. Education by its adoption and employment of biological metaphors has unwittingly accepted the naturalistic metaphysics. Botany lent the 'plant' analogy, an analogy as old as Plato, cited by Elyot and Comenius, but generally associated with the name of
Froebel, who however, was far from being a naturalist in philosophy. Zoology now supplies the analogies and
metaphors, and 'adaptation' and 'recapitulation' have
become the ruling concepts in Education. The term
naturalism stands in contrast with the term supernaturalism, which implies a dualistic world view with some power or being above or beyond nature. Materialism is a narrow or more limited form of naturalism, which in general asserts that there is nothing in the world except matter, or that 'nature' and the "physical world" are one and the same. The term materialism may be defined in various ways: as the theory that extended, self-existent atoms of matter in motion are the constituent elements of the universe, and that mind and consciousness—including all physical processes— are mere modes of such matter
and are reducible to the physical elements; and as the
doctrine that the universe can be fully interpreted by the physical sciences. These two definitions have identical implications. These definitions, however, tend to represent the more traditional forms of materialism. In recent times the doctrine has been expressed as 'energism', which reduces everything to some form of energy, or as a form of 'positivism', which emphasizes the exact sciences and disclaims concern about such things as the 'ultimate' nature of reality. Modern materialism holds that the universe is an unlimited material entity; that the universe, including all matter and energy (motion or force), has always existed, and will always exist; that the world is a hard, tangible,
material, objective reality that man can know. It holds that matter existed before mind; that the material world is primary and that thoughts about this world are secondary.
Materialists, like members of other schools of philosophy, do not agree on all points or make all the claims made in the quotation above. In the contemporary world, materialism is likely to take one of two main forms: mechanism or mechanistic materialism, with emphasis on the natural sciences, and dialectical materialism, the official philosophy of the Soviet Union, China and other communist groups around the world.
Development of Naturalism
The development of Naturalism may be traced from the earliest times. The material elements of the Nature inspired man from the very beginning to think. Hence, Thalles thought water as the original source of all world. Anaksimader accepted fire, water and air as immortal elements. In India also, from the very earliest times, Vedic seers thought about these immortal elements very seriously. As such, Indian people began to worship as divine these elements of fire, earth, water, air and sky. In this way, Greek and Indian philosophy reflect in more or less degree the fundamentals of Naturalism. Though Naturalism is a very old philosophy, yet the credit of introducing it into the realm of education goes to the revolutionary changes in physical sciences in the eighteenth century. In that age despotism and absolutism reigned supreme in whole of Europe with the result that there was almost no freedom for the individual at all.
Corruption and falsehood were a strong rampart. The
aristocracy had its hands red with the blood of common people. Everywhere there was exploitation, make-believe and deceit. But the advancement of science began to change the scene and old foundations began to quake under its impact. People began to realise that man is essentially free and his ultimate good lay in the lap of Nature. Hence, revolutionary fire began to spread in whole of Europe to free the common man from the strangle hold of dictatorship and absolutism. These revolutionary ideas
took their roots from the 13th and 14th century as
movements of Reformation and Renaissance which often took the shape of Pietism, Realism, Puritanism other reformatory movements The main aim of all these movements was to end absolutism in the field of religion and Formalism in the social field. This revolution broke out in France in all its full fury and its main actors were Voltaire and Rousseau. These philosophical thinkers raised a banner of revolt against the despotic role of Louis XIV. Voltaire
raised his voice aloud against intellectual repression and imposed discipline. Rousseau inspired people's cry of liberty, equality and fraternity in the field of political rights. Voltaire's Rationalism eventually turned into formal movement but Rousseau's voice spread like a jungle fire. Rousseau exhorted people to know that there was nine quality in Nature and thus it was he who shouted—"Man is born free and I find him everywhere in chains". Hence, this serfdom must end and to achieve this we must recognize all our social and political institutions on the principles of equality, liberty and fraternity. This cry transformed the face of whole Europe and its echoes were heard far and wide throughout the world.
Principles of Naturalism
The following are the main principles of Naturalism:
(1) The universe is a huge machine. Man is also a part of this machine and a complete machine in himself also.
(2) Life comes out of dead matter and is a sum total of physical and chemical reactions.
(3) All the capacities of an individual human being are delimited by his nature. Those are his innate and inherent tendencies and basic instincts.
(4) Man, because of his own nature, is the supreme
creation of Nature.
(5) The present life is the real life. Except this world, there is no other world beyond it. Hence, man should try to make this life happy and comfortable.
(6) Reality is of the external Natural only. All objects are born or made out by this Nature and ultimately disappear in Nature. Laws of external Nature never change.
(7) Unchanging laws of Nature explain all the events and occurrences of the world.
(8) The changes in the life of man and his physical conditions are due to scientific discoveries and inventions of machines and mechanical devices which
promote all sorts of comforts. Hence, knowledge of
physical inventions and discoveries is very essential. (9) The true explanation of reality can only be done in terms of physical sciences.
(10) The ultimate Reality is of Matter. God, Soul, Mind, The Heaven and Hell, Freedom of Will, Moral Values, Prayers and Superhuman Wonders are all illusions. (11) Thoughts depend on physical circumstances.
They are activated only when some external stimuli affect the body organ of an individual.
Forms of Naturalism
Above details bring out that naturalism has following three forms, which are being discussed here under in brief:
(1) Physical Naturalism,
(2) Mechanical Naturalism,
(3) Biological Naturalism.
(1) Physical Naturalism. Physical Naturalism studies the processes of matter and phenomena of the external world. It explains human activities and experiences in terms of material objects and natural laws. According to this view, the external Nature has complete hold on the life of human beings. In the field of education, Physical Naturalism with its great stress on physical sciences has not got much importance. The simple reason is that education is a conscious human process of development and not mere a physical science process.
(2) Mechanical Naturalism.
According to Mechanical Naturalism this universe is a
lifeless huge machine which gets its form through matter and motion. In the movements of this machine no mind or mental activity is required, nor any spiritual power is needed. According to this form of Naturalism, ignoring the consciousness of man as an individual entity, he is considered as a mere part of this huge machine and is himself a small machine. This form of Naturalism has contributed a singular characteristic to the process of education. In other words, Mechanical Naturalism has given rise to modern Psychology of Behaviourism which emphasizes the importance of conditioned responses and the effective principle of Learning by Doing.
(3) Biological Naturalism. Biological Naturalism is based upon the Darwinian Theory of Evolution. According to this theory, man has evolved from lower animals by a gradual process of development. Man is supreme product of this process of evolution. The advocates of this school uphold that heredity has a powerful influence on the nature and temperament of an individual human being. This illumines the principle of 'Man of Nature', according to which this
influence goes on from generation to generation.
In this way, Biological Naturalism emphasizes the development of man's natural impulses, natural
propensities and inborn tendencies. This doctrine has put forward following principles of evolution:
• Adaptation to Environment,
• Struggle for Existence,
• Survival of the Fittest.
According to the first principle each species has to gain adjustment in order to live, the second principle indicates that for life one has to struggle. The third principle clearly emphasizes that only the fittest survive, others decay and die out. This form of Naturalism exerts most prominent influence on the process of education.
NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
Naturalism as a philosophy of education developed in the eighteenth century. In a way, the psychological, scientific and sociological tendencies in education find their root in naturalism. So far a student of education naturalism should be of special interest. Comenius, a contemporary and disciple of Bacon, advocated education according to nature, although his own philosophical position was idealistic.
Histories of Education have usually ascribed the beginnings of Naturalism in Education to Rousseau, whose reiteration of the precept, "Follow Nature", has blinded writers to the fact that nature is opposed by Rousseau not to spirit, but to social convention, and that the natural or negative stage of education is merely preparatory to the moral, aesthetic and religious training of Emile. Naturalism in Education is
coincident rather with the introduction of the scientific conception in Education, and Herbert Spencer's work On Education is typical of the naturalistic school. Self- preservation is for him the first law of life, and the subjects which minister to self-preservation have priority in his curriculum. Science, contributing largely to the attainment of this end, is exalted; and Spencer affirms that not only for intellectual discipline is science the best, but also for moral discipline. He overstates his case, however, when he claims that the discipline of science is superior to that of our ordinary education because of the religions culture that it gives. He repeats that education shall be a repetition of civilization in little, that it shall be as much as possible a process of self evolution, and that it shall be pleasurable.
This doctrine of recapitulation, also accepted by many
idealists—Hegel, Froebel, etc.—derives its main support from biological analogies; its weakness is that it ignores the social culture which throughout the ages man has created and conserved, and which from earliest childhood influences, if it does not determine, the child's mental development. Spencer's position in his chapter on Moral Education writes:—"From whatever assumption they start, all theories of morality," he contends, "agree that conduct whose total results, immediate or remote, are beneficial, is
good conduct; while conduct whose total results, immediate and remote, are injurious, is bad conduct. The ultimate standards by which all men judge of behaviour, are the resulting happiness or misery." According to this doctrine there is no moral law, no place for duty for duty's sake; self-sacrifice would be utter foolishness; one's own selfish satisfaction the greatest good. Present-day Naturalism is more comprehensive than the original forms of the doctrine, and consequently approximates more closely to Idealism. This comprehensiveness is characteristic of such a work as Nunn's Education: Its Data and First Principles. The writer approaches the educational
problem from the scientific or biological standpoint, admitting this when he states that the criterion of
educational effort is justified by a sound reading of
biological facts. In accordance with this naturalistic attitude he maintains that life as a whole may with little extravagance be regarded as the unrolling of an instinct; and in the phenomena of conscious life he sees but the manifestation of properties that permeate all organisms through and through. He accordingly regards the difference between the perceptions of a dog and the thoughts of a sage as a difference not in the nature of the process, but in its range and complexity and in the materials with which it works. From his biological standpoint Nunn naturally regards "the autonomous development of the individual" as the central aim of education, and insists that the
education that aims at fostering individuality is the only education "according to nature". The biological
interpretation of man underlies Eugenics. The eugenists contend that the improvement of the human race can best be effected by human, as against "natural" selection, and by the regulation and control of those who should be allowed to bear offspring. Eugenics and Education are complementary,
as Plato clearly realised and definitely stated in the
Republic: "And indeed, if a state has once started well, it exhibits a kind of circular progress in its growth. Adherence to a good system of nurture and education creates good natures, and good natures, receiving the assistance of a good education, grow still better than they were, their breeding qualities improving among the rest, as is also seen in the lower animals." This complementary aspect, the importance of the environmental and educational influences, is again reasserting itself; the biological and other evidence supporting it has been conveniently marshalled by Swift in The Psychology of Youth. He sums up thus: "No intelligent person thinks that men are born equal
in mental capacity or that the outlook for moral growth gives the same clear view of the future in different children.
The eugenic doctrine admittedly received its stimulus and derived its support from Darwin's evolutionary hypothesis; it is not, however, based on natural selection, which would lead in the case of human society only to a laissez-faire policy; rather is it based on the manifest improvement resulting from the application of human skill and control in the breeding of animals. The improvement here is not necessarily an improvement from the animals' standpoint but merely an improvement to suit a man-made environment and to satisfy human needs. The process is throughout directed by a conscious purpose, and until there is some agreement as to what human ends are desirable the analogy of the breeding of animals cannot be applied to human beings. The conception of the autonomous development of the individual as the central aim of education is also liable to misinterpretation, and may even be thought to justify mere self-assertion, thus approaching dangerously the ethics of Nietzsche in which the efficient individual acknowledges no authority but his own will and no morality but his own interests." We cannot then make the autonomous development of the individual the aim of education. The term 'individuality' has for educational purposes too wide a denotation or range; it is also too narrow in connotation; it neglects certain factors which may be comprehended under 'personality'. A person, according to Locke, must be conscious, and according to Kant, must be free; and it is somewhat difficult to ascribe both consciousness and autonomy to everything having individuality. Findlay regards individuality not as an aim but as a datum in Education, and Adams regards it as a datum
in Education, and personality as almost wholly a datum, but still leaving a certain scope for the educator. In his Modem Developments of Educational Practice the latter further explains: There are three terms that are always getting in each other's way in the study of educational questions: individuality, personality and character. Individuality may thus be objected to on the ground that it emphasizes the
differentiating factors, whereas personality recognises the common characteristics of mankind. We have thus to train pupils not only to think for themselves, but also to think like other people. Insistence on development of individuality may result in a condition of affairs, such as Herbart described, in which each person brags of his own individuality and nobody understands his neighbour. Man must be taught to rise above his individuality, and to seek in social activities and social service the satisfaction of his spiritual needs. When Eugenics is in a position to return unequivocal answers to its questions, it will have to seek the assistance of Education for their dissemination and general acceptance; at present it is antagonizing educationists, and tending to arrest the efforts of social reformers, doubtless the consequences of a naturalistic bias in whatever philosophy it has changed to inherit. The naturalistic interpretation of human life has likewise dominated, and thereby prejudiced, much recent educational psychology. The great activity characteristic of American education has resulted from a philosophy and a psychology the limitations of which are only now revealing themselves. The psychology is derived from Thorndike; it can hardly be said to be Thorndike's own, for he notes the presence of, and seeks to do justice to, all the functions of mental life, including man's ideals. To Thorndike is due the credit of rescuing educational psychology from the lecture
room and students' notebook and giving it a method which has proved wonderfully fruitful. Looking at the subject from a political rather than from a philosophical standpoint, Bagley sees in the results of Mental Testing and in some of the conclusions drawn from these results a fatalistic tendency, an educational determinism, which challenges the democratic conception in Education, and which, in our view, is merely a further expression of the naturalistic philosophy; "the current teachings of the determinist
school are dangerous", affirms Bagley, "because they
proceed with an apparently dogmatic disregard of the
possibilities of insuring progress through environmental agencies." Bagley concedes that the fatalistic attitude is not the only conclusion of the activities of mental testing. "For everything that is positive and constructive in its teaching there will always be a warm welcome. For whatever it has
to present that is negative and destructive it must clearly assume the burden of proof." We are grateful to Bagley for directing attention to the fatalistic tendency in the conclusions of mental testing and for opening a new chapter in the philosophy of testing; such fatalism is not, however, inherent in mental testing but is a consequence of the inadequate and unsatisfactory philosophical background which lies behind the testing, a recent development of the naturalistic metaphysics.
SUMMARY OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
Psychological, scientific and sociological tendencies in
education find their root in naturalism. Naturalism believes that education should be in strict conformity with the nature of the child. Education, according to nature, may mean any of the following:
(1) Discovery, formulation, and application of natural laws to the educational process. This meaning was in the minds of the sense realists like Bacon, Ratke, and Comenius. The naturalistic theory of these writers failed because of faulty reasoning.
(2) Education according to the natural laws of human
development. This approach has been accepted by G.
Stenley Hall of the nineteenth century and by educators such as Plato, Quntilian, Ascham and Comenius.
(3) A return to the natural as opposed to all that is artificial. We shall use the term 'Naturalism' in this chapter in this sense. This conception of naturalism is its greatest contribution to educational thought. The naturalistic movement in education is a bitter enemy of the artificial life of the upper classes. It criticizes the training of children in the artificialities of life. It stands for encouraging the natural spontaneity of children. Naturalism is against autocratic and intellectual pretensions. It rejects all authority that interferes with the spontaneous development of children. Rousseau has been the outstanding exponent of naturalism in education. A separate chapter is devoted to explain his educational theory. So here we shall not discuss him in detail. We shall just quote him at places in the process of discussing naturalism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURALISTIC EDUCATION
The following are the characteristics of Naturalistic education:
(1) Back to Nature. Out of three essential factors of
education namely Nature, man and objects Naturalism
gives prime importance to Nature. Hence, its call is—"Back to Nature". According to Naturalists, the best teacher of child is Nature. Hence, to develop the child according to his nature, education should provide natural environment. In the 18th century the environment of educational institutions was very much artificial. Rousseau rebelled against formalism, verbalism and the artificiality of education and exhorted one and all to return to education which brings about the natural and normal development of
the individuality. Rousseau firmly believed that life became artificial by coming in contact of social institutions. Thus, he decided to educate his imaginary child 'Emile' in the laps of Nature. In the first sentence of his famous book Emile and Education Rousseau emphatically declares—"All things are good as they come from the hands of the author of Nature, everywhere they degenerate in the hands of man."
(2) Opposition to Bookish Knowledge. The second
characteristic of Naturalistic education is its opposition to mere academic knowledge and verbalism of books. The prevalent education meant mere cramming of Greek and Latin literature. Naturalists opposed this education calling it artificiality, snobbery and mere show. They emphasized real education to be according to the nature of the child through natural interests and activities. Rousseau was such a staunch supporter of education by nature. To him all education, even the early childhood should be self-learning or learning by doing.
(3) Progressive. The third characteristic of Naturalistic education is that education should be progressive. Prevalent education prepares the child for his future adult life. It believed the gospel—"Child is the father of man". As such, more and more knowledge used to be forced down into the mind of the child to prepare him to face the problems of adult life. This, the Naturalist thought as cruel and unjust behaviour towards a child. Naturalistic education believes that a child is a child and not an adult in the making. As a child, he is a dynamic individual who develops gradually. This development passes through four stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. All these stages have their own needs and problems. Education should meet these needs and develop the capacity to solve those problems particular to each stage. Rousseau has clearly exhorted—"Nature wills that children should be children before they are men. If we seek to pervert the order, we shall produce forward fruits without ripeness and flavour".
(4) Negative Education. The fourth characteristic of
Naturalism is negative education. J.S. Ross is right when he says—"A negative education does not mean a time of idleness, far from it. It does not give virtue, it protects from vice. It does not inculcate truth, it protects from error. It disposes the child to take the path that will lead him to truth when he has reached to understand it, and goodness, when he has acquired the faculty of recognizing and loving it."
(5) Central Position of Child. The fifth characteristic of Naturalistic education is to put the child at the centre of educational process. Naturalists believe that education is meant for the child. Thus, it should be so organized that child learns by his own activities, observations and experiences.,
(6) Freedom of the Child. The sixth characteristic of
Naturalistic education is to allow full freedom to the child to develop himself according to his natural tendencies. The school, the time-table, the books and the teacher should not condition his experiences in any way as per- planning or preconditioning spoils his natural growth and stunts his normal development. The child should be put under no restraints, no interferences, no difficulties and no confusions. He should be completely free to structure his own plans, activities, observations and experiences. Rousseau emphatically exhorts— "God makes all things good. Man meddles with them and they become evil."
(7) Emphasis on the Training of Senses. Naturalistic education emphasizes the training of senses. Nothing is acquired by force from outside. Our senses are the gateways of knowledge. These senses need training to discharge their function with efficiency. In this connection Rousseau has well said—"Education should prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of senses."
NATURALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
All Naturalists do not agree on the formulation of education aims. Different Naturalists have expressed different views about the aims of education. Yet, the main aims as propounded by all Naturalists are as under:
(1) To Perfect the Human Machines. Naturalists regard the whole universe as a huge machine. Man is a part of this huge machine and is a complete machine in himself also. Hence, the first aim of education is to make the individual work very efficiently as a part of the huge machine and also work as a very efficient machine himself. J.S. Ross says, "Education should make the human machine as good a machine as possible by attending to its constitution, by elaborating it and making it capable of more and more
complicated tasks."
(2) Attainment of Present and Future Happiness. Biological Naturalism advocates the attainment of happiness of the individual. This should be in the present life as well as in the life to come. Education should co-operate in this process and bring it to success. But McDougall asserts that happiness and misery come according to the natural consequences. Hence, he emphasised the emancipation, moulding and guiding of the basic impulses of the child and
a synthesis of all these to attain natural progress and
natural development.
(3) Preparation for the Struggle of Existence. Darwin
believed in the principle of struggle for the existence and survival of the fittest. One has to struggle constantly with the environment for survival. Hence, education should develop the capacities of the individual so that he comes out victorious in the struggle of life.
(4) Adaptation to Environment. New Lamarchians also
believe in the Darwinian theory but assert that a human being, unlike the other animals, has a power to adapt himself to the ever- changing environment. This is a natural capacity. Thus, the aim of education should be to strengthen this capacity of adaptation of the individual. Reinforcement by education will give the individual added capacity and efficiency for adaptation.
(5) Improvement of Racial Gains. Some Naturalists believe that the racial heritage of cultural and civilizational achievements cannot be transferred from generation to generation by a mere natural process of inheritance. As such, education should conserve and preserve this cultural heritage and develop it further. J.S. Ross aptly remarks— "Education, then, is the preservation, the handing and the enhancement of the racial gains generation by generation."
(6) Natural Development. Rousseau has emphatically
declared that making the child physically healthy and
strong, and in view of the individual differences, education should develop the child according to his inborn tendencies, interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities in a free environment. Such development will be a development according to Nature in the real sense of the term.
(7) Autonomous Development. T.P. Nunn has insisted that while formulating the aim of education according to the Naturalistic philosophy and scientific point of view, one must keep in mind that the development is to be free, fully autonomous and self-acquired. In other words, the aim of education should be to develop a self-developed and self realised individuality.
NATURALISM AND TYPES OF EDUCATION
Naturalism does not believe in specialised education. It stands for liberal education, i.e., free cultivation of all human powers in the interest of perfect individual
development. Rousseau believed in the development of the whole man. He was against cramping and distorting specialization. Rousseau says, "Education by nature will restore the natural unsophisticated man, whose sole function is to be a man. In the natural order of things, all men being equal, their common vocation is manhood; and whoever is well-trained for that, cannot fail to perform any vocation connected with it." Evidently under naturalism the student is not to be prepared for any definite vocation or definite social position. He is to be so developed that he
can adjust himself to the ever-changing conditions of the industrial civilization. Naturalism stands for the democratic doctrine of "equality, liberty and fraternity", and consequently it has greatly furthered the advance of universality and democracy in education. Naturalism has emphasized the need of physical education and health training, but the process it has recommended, is a negative one. Rousseau speaks of many good health rules, though
they are mostly negative. He recommends that the young child must be allowed utmost freedom of movement and he should not be confined to bed. For making the child healthy, he must be exposed to cold, heat and risk as far as possible. Naturalism regards moral education as a matter of experience rather than of instruction. Rousseau has favoured a moral training through natural consequences of child's acts, thinking that the unnatural and undesirable acts will be inhibited and the natural and desirable ones will be retained automatically. Naturalism limits intellectual education to the informal training of the senses. It wants that the child's power of sense discrimination should be developed by stimulating his natural curiosity and interest. The child should be encouraged to express his ideas freely. Sufficient opportunities should be given to him for scientific observation, investigation and inference. Affected speech and verbosity are to be carefully avoided. According to
naturalism, too much reliance on books is detrimental to intellectual development. The naturalism religion is a matter of heart and not of head. Religion is to be felt and not to be reasoned. So every child should be allowed to develop his own religion.
NATURALISM AND THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION
Naturalism believes in negative education. Hence the child is not to be taught the traditional subjects. The curriculum consists of the phenomena of nature presented in the natural order before the child. Conventional habits and ideas, knowledge and information built by the sophisticated society should not be given any place in the curriculum. The budding activities and the interests of the students' own nature should have the primary place in the curriculum. The purpose of the curriculum is to unfold the natural powers of the child in order to meet his natural needs. Hence the curriculum will consist of those activities
which spring naturally from the needs of child's life.
Running, jumping, climbing, and swimming will be
encouraged as the natural physical activities of the child. For his sense discrimination, measuring distances, counting and weighing things, singing and drawing objects would be encouraged. For stimulating free expression of ideas the speech and drawing will be considered as the chief means.
For the development of sense perception and practical
judgment, agriculture and carpentry will be introduced, Arithmetic and geometry will be taught as the experiential activities in the natural life of the child. Astronomy and geography are not to be studied from books but directly from nature.
NATURALISM AND TEACHER
Rousseau thought that child's natural development takes place only when he is allowed to develop freely without any hindrance or interference from outside. Naturalists do not like that children should be taught in classes by teachers. To them, Nature is the only Supreme teacher, in whose close contact the child develops normally and naturally. In the process of education, the place of the child is more important and central than the teacher. The teacher should not impose upon the child anything. The teacher should so sympathetically and affectionately behave towards the child that he feels full freedom to develop himself according to his natural qualities, interests and capacities. The teacher is only to set the stage and
allow the child to act freely according to his inherent
capacities and the teacher is only to act as a sympathetic observer and guide.
NATURALISM AND DISCIPLINE
In the field of discipline also, Naturalists depend upon
Nature and advocate the theory of "discipline by Natural consequences". According to them, Nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of Nature and thus he will learn by the consequences of his own actions. Thus, nobody should interfere in this process of Nature. The child should be allowed full
freedom to indulge in the activities of his choice. The
teacher should provide such experiences for free activity. Any interference is likely to create mental complexes in the sub- conscious mind of the child. Thus, the Naturalists decry all kinds of external interference and allow full freedom to the child to think and act according to his interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities. Herbert Spencer by his own Hedonistic theory supports the theory of Discipline
by Natural Consequences. Pleasure or pain are the twin teachers who will discipline the child for desirable and undesirable activities according to the consequences. Thus, Herbert Spencer opines—"When a child falls or runs its head against the table, it suffers a pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful, and by reflection of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into proper
guidance of its movements."
NATURALISM AND SCHOOL
According to Naturalists, school environment should be completely free, flexible and without any rigidity. There should not be any fixed time-table and no forcing from above the ready made dozes of knowledge into the minds of children. Nature will do all the planning and processing for the natural development of children. Nature itself structures all the free and desired experiences and also develops the feeling of self-learning and self-discipline. The Summer Hill School of Neel and Tagore's Vishwa Bharti are models of such free schools where children are given full freedom to plan their own thinking and activities according to their own interests and natural tendencies. These creative and self-creative activities go to develop the character and the personality of the individual through self- discipline and freedom to experiment. All modern and progressive schools adopt this concept of self- discipline to promote self-development.
NATURALISM AND AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
According to naturalism, father and mother, nurse and
tutor and trained teachers in the public schools, are the chief should be taken over by the public authorities. In the words of Rousseau, "The child at birth is already the pupil not of the tutor, but of nature. The tutor merely studies under this first teacher and prevents her efforts from being balked." It must be remembered that under naturalism, Nature is the chief agency of education; all others are only the means for executing her purposes and scheme of things.
NATURALISM AND ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION
Naturalism believes in a careful and systematic
organisation of education in strict accordance with the laws of natural growth. Rousseau speaks of four stages of growth—Infancy from birth to 5, Childhood from 5 to 12, Boyhood from 12 to 15, and Adolescence from 15 to 20— and has outlined the nature of education for each stage with a distinct curriculum and a distinct methodology.
NATURALISM AND METHODS OF EDUCATION
Naturalism makes the child the supreme centre of all
educational procedures. The techniques of education must be determined according to the child's nature and child's growth. Naturalism has firmly established the three great modern principles of teaching:
1. Principle of Growth,
2. Principle of Pupil-activity, and
3. Principle of Individualization.
The natural needs of life are the chief driving forces of
human growth. The supplying of these needs is to develop all human faculties. The child feels a 'need', then he is impelled into some 'activity', and thereby gets 'experience'. On the basis of this 'experience' he builds up his 'knowledge'. This is the order of nature which the process of education must follow. In other words, naturalism thinks that the function of the teacher is only to guide the natural growth of the child, i.e., he has to follow the natural principles of growth, and has not to teach or impel learning.
The principles of pupil-activity means "nothing must be done for the child that he can do for himself". The child is not to learn anything on the authority of others. He is not to be told anything. He must be encouraged to discover things for himself. This stress on self- help and independent research has been one of the most noteworthy characteristics of modern education. The principle of individualization means that each child should be permitted to grow according to his own nature. The child must not be sacrificed for the society. The interests and needs of the individual must be considered as supreme and above those
of the society. The child's individuality must not be crushed and the child must not be forced into the mould of social conformity. This implies that education is to be adjusted to the needs of the child and the child is not to be forced to adjust himself according to the prevailing education.
Naturalism would like to allow the child to suffer the
natural consequences of his own acts. Thus naturalism places the discipline of the school upon a completely new foundation.
THE MODERN PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION MOVEMENT
Many modern educators adhere to the basic doctrine of naturalism. To them the goal of education is to follow the laws of nature. They want to remove all obstructions that hinder with the natural evolution of the individual and of the race. The modern 'Progressives' who have brought in the 'Progressive Education' movement may be called the present-day exponents of naturalism in education. They have all praise for the qualities of self-direction, self-control
and creative originality.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF NATURALISM
Merits of Naturalism
(1) Development of child psychology. Naturalism is a child- centred process of development. It emphasizes the development of the child according to his natural interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities. This view gave an impetus to the development of child
psychology and introduction of psychological and
sociological tendencies in the field of modern education.
(2) Scientific study of society and sociology. Naturalism gave birth to the scientific study of society and social processes. We see that sociology is gaining ground day by day as a scientific study of modern times. This has contributed much to the aims and processes of development in all areas and fields.
(3) Emphasis on experience-centred curriculum. Naturalism has shifted from a subject- centred curriculum to an experience-centred curriculum which is the essential need of modern life and society. Now education lays due emphasis on co-curricular activities which contribute to the education and development of a child to a very great extent. The complexity of modern life needs that varied experiences should be given to the child to educate him to face life squarely and solve all its problems successfully.
(4) Important contribution in the field of methods of
teaching. Naturalism brought about revolutionary changes in the field of methodology. Learning by Doing, Heuristic Method, Dalton Plan, Play-way Method, Observation Method, Montessori Method and other practical methods of teaching are the chief contribution of Naturalism. Even Idealism, Pragmatism and Realism are indebted to Naturalism for these effective methods of teaching.
(5) Opposition to repression in the field of discipline. The slogans of Naturalism are— individuality, activity and freedom. Hence, decrying any repression, it emphasizes unrestrained freedom for the natural development of the child. At the same time it emphasizes the principle of discipline by natural consequences. Thus, the chief contribution of Naturalism to modern education is the freedom of the child. The above discussion gives us some very valuable conclusions as to the merits of Naturalism as
applied in the field of education. Paul Monroe has rightly remarked— "Naturalism has given direct impetus to the clear formation of the psychological and scientific conception of education."
Demerits of Naturalism
(1) One-sided and unsatisfying aims of education.
Naturalism concentrates about natural environment and natural development by Nature. Scholars hold that if the child is developed according to his nature in the lapse of Nature only, the child will become unsocial with no feeling of social service or social good. He will develop into a pure animal. In fact, the child has animal instinct at the time of birth. If his animal tendencies are to be socialised through education, then social environment is greatly essential. Thus, the aims of naturalistic education are one-sided and unsatisfying.
(2) Emphasis on present needs. Naturalism lays stress on the solution of present needs and problems of an
individual. It advocates no concern for spiritual values and the remote future. Actually life and education should have an ultimate goal. Unless there is a goal before a child, his intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual thirst cannot be quenched. This will lead to continuous lack of satisfactions in human life. Thus, no education worth the name can avoid spiritual values and preparation for future life.
(3) Ignores books. Naturalism emphasizes that education of the child should be based on his activities and life experiences. But only activities and experiences cannot ensure the total development of the child's personality. How can we leave those books which contain valuable knowledge and experiences of others forming the cultural treasure of humanity? No nation can afford to neglect or be indifferent to books. Natural activities as well as books all contribute their share in the development of total personality.
(4) Undue emphasis on physical education. Naturalism lays too much emphasis on the development of the physique and the physical senses. It is for this reason that Rousseau advocates natural education for twelve years to be given to a child, only then moral education may be imparted. This is an unbalanced process of education. Social, moral and spiritual development is as important and essential as physical development. According to Pestalozzi— "Specialised development of one side of human nature is unnatural and false. To consider any one capacity exclusively is to destroy man's natural equilibrium."
(5) More importance to scientific subjects in curriculum. Naturalism emphasizes scientific education. Herbert Spencer, a staunch Naturalist has given prime importance to scientific subjects and secondary place to humanities in the curriculum. In fact, the curriculum should show a balance of the two categories of subjects as both are equally important and essential in the development of a child's personality.
(6) Unlimited freedom of child. Naturalism provides
unrestricted freedom to the child to develop himself
naturally. This may lead to self-assertion and stand in the way of self- realization. Self-assertion generally result in arbitrary behaviour without any consideration of others. This is undesirable. All have equal rights to develop themselves. Hence, freedom should be enjoyed equally by all and not by a particular individual only. In this connection, the needs of society and social conditions must
have also something to say and plan for the freedom of an individual.
(7) Unappealing principle of discipline by natural
consequences. The principle of discipline by natural
consequence, as emphasised, according to Naturalism is quite unsuitable and very often harmful. A child may reap a very terrible consequence of a very insignificant lapse on his part. For example, lightening of a match-stick without proper guidance may start a conflagration of a gigantic magnitude. Thus, this principle appears very unjust, hazardous, rash and unconducive.
(8) No importance to teacher. Naturalism assigns to the teacher the role of a mere guide and observer. He is to be a sympathetic guide and helper in structuring experiences for the child and observe the activities undergone. He is not to interfere or plan any teaching directly. This attitude is not considered very healthy and desirable in modern democratic countries where various social, moral and spiritual qualities are to be inculcated by the educational process in children. Without these qualities, it will not be possible to become a dynamic citizen promoting good to
the self and welfare of the nation.
(9) Anti-social. Naturalists emphasize individuality
development ignoring society which is as essential as
individual. Both are independent. The development of one may be achieved with the close co-operation and development of the other. Thus, they are like the two sides of the same coin and no education, worth the name can neglect the one or the other. As such, Naturalistic ideal of individuality development is one-sided and denies the existence of society of which the individual is an integral part.
Exponents
(1) Aristotle, (2) Comte, (3) Hobbes, (4) Bacon,
(5) Darwin, (6) Lamark, (7) Huxley, (8) Herbert Spencer, (9) Bernard Shaw, (10) Samual Butler, (11) Rousseau etc.
Fundamental Principles
(1) Naturalism does not believe in God. Nature is everything. Nothing is beyond it.
(2) It believes in matter and importance of material world.
(3) Physical and natural principles are supreme and universal.
(4) There is no ideal or supreme values.
(5) Fully materialistic and mechanical attitude. (6) It is a monistic concept.
Principles of Education
(1) Education is based on psychology.
(2) It emphasizes basic instincts, interests and
tendencies.
(3) Child is the centre of education.
(4) It opposes book- learning.
(5) Only Individual is considered and valued.
(6) It is a progressive and dynamic ideology.
Aims of Education
(1) To perfect the human machines.
(2) Attainment of present and future happiness.
(3) Preparation for the struggle of existence.
(4) Adaptation to environment.
(5) Improvement of racial gains.
(6) Natural development.
(7) Autonomous development.
Curriculum
(1) Naturalistic Curriculum is constructed according to basic instincts, aptitudes and tendencies of children.
(2) In such curriculum scientific subjects occupy
main place. Humanities occupy subsidiary position.
(3) Main subjects of Naturalistic Curriculum are — Games and Sports, Physical sciences and Physiology, Health culture, Material sciences and Biological sciences etc.
Methods of Teaching
(1) Naturalists, emphasizing learning by doing, Learning by self- experience and learning by play,
have advocated the following methods of teaching.
(2) Observation, play-way, Dalton Plan, Heuristic, Montessori and Kindergarten Methods.
Teacher
(1) Teacher's role is subsidiary whereas child's
position is central.
(2) Nature is the supreme teacher. He is to set the stage for child and retire behind the curtain.
Discipline
(1) The slogan of Naturalism is freedom.
(2) This doctrine, supporting emancipatory discipline, emphasizes discipline according to natural consequences.
School
(1) According to Naturalism, Nature's vast campus is
the real school.
(2) School should be a natural and spontaneous field of free activities for children.
