This is an Educational blog maintained by SABARISH P, (MSc Physics, MEd, NET), Assistant Professor in Physical Science Education. Contact : pklsabarish@gmail.com

Saturday 30 January 2016

B.Ed.Notes-Theoretical bases of teaching physical science : Unit 2 - Teaching techniques and strategies.

B.Ed. Teaching Notes
Theoretical bases of teaching physical science
Unit 2 - Methods and Techniques of Teaching Science.
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET
Assistant Professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.

Contact me : pklsabarish@gmail.com
Teaching techniques and strategies
Ø Brainstorming

            This is a strategy for generating ideas.  In a classroom, the teacher can select a problem-oriented topic and ask the students to express themselves freely on various aspects of the topic.  The teacher assures the students that their expression will not be criticized or commented upon a negative way.  The views/opinions of the participants would not be viewed as relevant or irrelevant but the students are encouraged to come out with their ideas, opinions, feelings, expressions and comments.  Brainstorming, founded in 1953 was popularized by A.F.Osborn.
Procedure
            Brainstorming is an instructional procedure similar in many ways to an exploratory discussion.  Brainstorming is used to generate a wide variety of creative ideas concerning a problem in a short period of time.  The major purpose is to stimulate thinking and bring out a range of ideas.  Students are encouraged to come up with exciting and radical ideas without fear of criticism or evaluation.  The strategy is easily operationalised. 
·         Divide the class into small groups consisting of 5 to 8 members.  Let them select a record and a chairperson. 
·         Explain the basic rules of brainstorming. 
·         Present the issue to be brainstormed.  The recorder should record all ideas.  Brainstorming does not include critical judgement and/or editing of ideas. 
·         At the first stage of brainstorming, even far out or wild ideas are also accepted.
·         After students have had sufficient time to generate ideas, list all ideas on a chalkboard. 
·         A number of creative activities can be framed out of the brainstorming session such as presentation, discussion of ideas and making bulletin board displays.
For encouraging creative thinking and co-operation, brainstorming is an excellent strategy.
Guidelines for using brainstorming
1.         Identify the problem or issue to be brainstormed and present it in simple language.
2.         Write everything down; do not judge it or evaluate the ideas.
3.         Consider using more than one recorder so that no ideas are lost.
4.         Emphasize some basic rules, which should be enforced.
Stages in brainstorming
1.         Warm-up :Attracting the members to the subject, arousing their interest and preparing them for free expression is the first stage.  This is the duty of the anchor.  The teacher can act as the anchor at the beginning to give an idea of this role to the student.  The warm-up can be done through the narration of an appealing incident or a short story.
2.         Ideation: This stage is of free expression of ideas.  Ensure that all ideas are recorded.
3.         Evaluation : In this stage, ideas expressed are evaluated.  Using the criterion formed through discussion, each idea is evaluated and the appropriate idea for problem solving is found out.
Principle of brainstorming
            Brainstorming, to become effective is carried out on the basis of four principles.
a.         Free wheeling : Once started, the brainstorming session should progress like the lubricated wheel.  That is, expression of opinions should be possible without interruption.  The idea may irrational, comical or strange.  But all such ideas may be accepted.
b.         No criticism : It must be ensured that expressions and gestures do not reflect a critical attitude.
c.         Quantity breeds quality : The more number of ideas generated, the number of qualitative ideas alos increase.  Hence maximum number of ideas should be collected.  Each person may be given opportunity to present ideas agian.  Prompting those students who remain silent, without hindering others is the duty of the anchor.
Rules
            1.  No judgement or evaluation of ideas
            2.  The sky is the limit. (thinking is unlimited)
            3.  The more ideas, the better.
            4.  Keep the brainstorming process informal and relaxed.
            5.  Record all ideas.
            6.  Use brainstorming when a lot of ideas are needed, or when time is limited.
Merits
            1.  It makes the pupil creative and innovative.
            2.  It gives opportunity for pupils for analyzing and solving a problem.
            3.  Useful in problem oriented themes.
            4.  Recording of all ideas of pupils is considered.
            5.  Encourages participation and can be used by all students.
Demerits
            1.  Difficulty in selecting a problem oriented topic
            2.  Problem of discipline
            3.  Lack of adequate library and laboratory
            4.  Finding out a tentative solution is challenging.
Ø Questioning technique
"Good learning starts with questions, not answers"
Questioning consumes a considerable proportion of time in classrooms. Interest in questioning as an instructional tool can be traced back to the fourth century as evidenced in the Socratic dialogues recorded by Plato.
In the 21st century, teachers use questions to manage student behavior and classroom activities, to promote students' inquiry and thinking, and to assess students' knowledge or understanding. Questioning enables teachers to check learners' understanding. It also benefits learners as it encourages engagement and focuses their thinking on key concepts and ideas. Questioning actively encourages the development of thinking and dialogue skills.
Questioning can serve at least 5 distinct purposes in effective classrooms.
1.         To guide students toward understanding when introducing material. 
2.         To guide students to do a greater share of the thinking.
3.         To remediate an error.
4.         To stretch or motivating students.
5.         To check for understanding (Evaluation purpose).
In questioning technique teachers uses questions as a tool to promote inquiry, thinking, and ultimately learning.
An effective question must involve the following techniques
1)      Redirection: This involves the framing of a single question for which there are many possible responses from the students. Redirection is possible only in the case of high order, divergent questions.
Example: At the end of this unit Halogens, which do you think is the most useful one? ………….Why?
2)      Prompting: This technique involves the use of hints or clues which are used to aid the student in responding correctly. This is required when a student is asked a question and he fails to reply or response correctly.
3)      Probing: This technique is used when the students reply is correct but insufficient because it lacks depth. This helps to process information.
Thumb rules of effective questioning
A few general rules of thumb for designing effective questions are:
1)      One at a Time: Have only one question in the question.
2)      Simple to Complex: Ask questions that progress from simple to complex.
3)      Clear and Concise: The questions should be clear and Concise
4)      Start with a question word.  (who, when, what, where, why, how)
5)      Ask an actual question.
6)      Assume the answer.  (Ask, “Who can tell me…,” not, “Can anyone tell me…”
7)      Stock Questions: Ask one sequence of questions in a row.  Ask versions of the same question.
8)      Break it down: Break complex questions to simple, one after the other.
Ø Buzz Session
            In buzz sessions, we allot a fixed amount of time for the students to discuss a problem or a task in a small group (in pairs, or in threes).  Clear instructions may be given so that the discussions are productive.  The efficiency of such a session would be enhanced by the teacher moving around and getting a feel of the discussions without interrupting.  Once the small groups finalise the solutions to the problem, the representative of the group reports back to the teacher.  The teacher has to compile all the reports and provide his judgement to the students.
            Buzz session can be organized in a regular class of large strength or form group among the students and ask the groups to take their leisure time to discuss their problem and report back to you.  This is called “Buzz session” because group “buzz” like bees while discussing the problem.The uniqueness of Buzz session is that it is useful in deriving creative and innovative solutions to tasks and problems.    
Merits
1.         Develops classroom interaction
2.         Gives training the discussion
3.         Teacher becomes an active participant.
4.         Develops skills among pupils.
Demerits
1.         Time consuming.
2.         Difficulty in forming groups in class.
3.         Most of the students lack initiativeness.
Ø  SMALL GROUP TECHNIQUES
             “A group” in a class comprises of members having common academic goals, similar academic background and more or less similar age.
            Small group techniques of providing group-controlled learning experiences are:
            1.         Buzz Session
            2.         Brain Storming
Ø  Distinction between Buzz Session and Brainstorming
Buzz Session
Brain storming
There is criticism of ideas presented by members
No criticism
Members may not express their ideas freely
Members can express their ideas freely
Controlled by supporteurs
Controlled by anchor
Group size 5 or 7        
Large Group
Time consuming since there is discussion of unsolved problems
Less time is required compared to Buzz session
Ø Debate
Debate is a method of presentation especially suitable to controversial themes and for developing skills like logical arguments. The participating students could be divided into two groups, one for proposition and the other against it. Teacher can act as a moderator.
Merits
1)      Develop argument abilities
2)      Promotes leadership qualities
3)      Increases communicative skills
4)      Supports creativity
Demerits
1)      Lack of interest among pupils
2)      Difficulty in forming identical groups
3)      All topics cannot be covered.
4)      May create emotional and personal criticisms.

Ø  Symposium
Generally called as a conference or meeting to discuss a particular subject. In this a topic is broken into various parts. Each part is presented by an expert or well-informed person in a brief concise speech. The facilitator meets with 3or 4 group members and plans an outline. At the end the facilitator summarizes the main issues.

Ø Panel Discussion
A panel discussion is a specific format used in a meeting, conference or convention. It is a live or virtual discussion about a specific topic amongst a selected group of panelists who share differing perspectives in front of a larger audience.
A panel discussion, or simply a panel, involves a group of people gathered to discuss a topic in front of an audience, typically at scientific, business or academic conferences, fan conventions, and on television shows. Panels usually include a moderator who guides the discussion and sometimes elicits audience questions, with the goal of being informative and entertaining.
The definition of a panel discussion is a situation in which a group of people are gathered together to discuss an issue, often to provide feedback on something, to formulate  solutions to a problem or to discuss an issue of public concern in front of an audience.
An example of a panel discussion is a TV focus group where a group of viewers are assembled to give feedback to the producers on the show.
An example of a panel discussion is when top scientists gather together to discuss global warming.
An example of a panel discussion is when a group of local politicians hold an open discussion and invite the public to come with questions or concerns.
The panel is typically facilitated by a “moderator” who guides the panel and the audience through the event.
The panel, typically 3-4 experts or practitioners in the field, shares facts, offers opinions and responds to audience questions either through questions  by the moderator or taken from the audience directly.
The panel session typically lasts for 60-90 minutes.
Use a panel when you believe the group of panelists will generate something more interesting than any one individual panel member could generate on his/her own.
Ø Seminar
It is an instructional technique which involves in generating a situation for a group to have a guided interaction among themselves on a theme.
A seminar may be defined as a gathering of people for the purpose of discussing a stated topic. Such gatherings are usually interactive sessions where the participants engage in discussions about the delineated topic. The sessions are usually headed or led by one or two presenters who serve to steer the discussion along the desired path.
PURPOSE OF A SEMINAR
A seminar may have several purposes or just one purpose. For example, a seminar may be for the purpose of education, such as a lecture, where the participants engage in the discussion of an academic subject for the aim of gaining a better insight into the subject. Other forms of educational seminars might be held to impart some skills or knowledge to the participants. The participants gain knowledge or tips about the topic of discussion.

A seminar can be motivational, in which case the purpose is usually to inspire the attendees to become better people, or to work towards implementing the skills they might have learned from the seminar. For instance, a business seminar with a financial theme could be for the purpose of teaching small business owners how to pitch to investors or to write a solid business plan, and to motivate them to get started right away.
PLANNING A SEMINAR
The first step towards planning an effective seminar is to determine what the purpose of the seminar will be. Think about the target audience who will participate and what they stand to gain from attending the seminar. Every seminar must have an agenda, so determine what the agenda will be. Set a budget for the seminar and work within this budget.
Merits
1)      Spontaneous learning occurs
2)      Useful for sharing large information
3)      Learning experience is highly structured by the learner himself.
4)      The teacher or chairperson of technical session only plays the guidance.
5)      Learner gets in-depth knowledge of the subject he presented
Limitations
1)      Every topic is not feasible
2)      Suitable for higher classes only.
3)      Limited scope for learning by doing.
Ø Concept map
Concept maps graphically illustrate relationships between two or more concepts and are linked by words (Link words) that describe their relationship.
Used as a learning and teaching technique, concept mapping visually illustrates the relationships between concepts and ideas. Often represented in circles or boxes, concepts are linked by words and phrases that explain the connection between the ideas, helping students organize and structure their thoughts to further understand information and discover new relationships. Most concept maps represent a hierarchical structure, with the overall, broad concept first with connected sub-topics, more specific concepts, following.
Definition of a Concept Map
A concept map is a type of graphic organizer used to help students organize and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.
Benefits of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping serves several purposes for learners:
1)      Helping students brainstorm and generate new ideas
2)      Encouraging students to discover new concepts and the propositions that connect them
3)      Allowing students to more clearly communicate ideas, thoughts and information
4)      Helping students integrate new concepts with older concepts
5)      Enabling students to gain enhanced knowledge of any topic and evaluate the information
How to Build a Concept Map
Concept maps are typically hierarchical, with the subordinate concepts stemming from the main concept or idea. This type of graphic organizer however, always allows change and new concepts to be added. The concept positions on a map can continuously change, while always maintaining the same relationship with the other ideas on the map.
Start with a main idea, topic, or issue to focus on.
Find the key concepts that connect and relate to your main idea and rank them; most general, inclusive concepts come first, then link to smaller, more specific concepts.
Finish by connecting concepts--creating linking phrases and words.
Once the basic links between the concepts are created, add cross-links, which connect concepts in different areas of the map, to further illustrate the relationships and strengthen student’s understanding and knowledge on the topic.
Concept Maps in Education
When created correctly and thoroughly, concept mapping is a powerful way for students to reach high levels of cognitive performance. As students create concept maps, they reiterate ideas using their own words and help identify incorrect ideas and concepts; educators are able to see what students do not understand, providing an accurate, objective way to evaluate areas in which students do not yet grasp concepts fully.

Concept map of waves



Ø Mind map
Mind mapping is a visual form of note taking that offers an overview of a topic and its complex information, allowing students to comprehend, create new ideas and build connections. Through the use of colors, images and words, mind mapping encourages students to begin with a central idea and expand outward to more in-depth sub-topics.
A mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. It harnesses the full range of cortical (brain) skills – word, image, number, logic, rhythm, colour and spatial awareness – in a single, uniquely powerful manner. In so doing, it gives you the freedom to roam the infinite expanses of your brain. The Mind Map can be applied to every aspect of life where improved learning and clearer thinking will enhance human performance
Buzan suggests the following guidelines for creating mind maps:
1.Start in the center with an image of the topic, using at least 3 colors.
2.Use images, symbols, codes, and dimensions throughout your mind map.
3.Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters.
4.Each word/image is best alone and sitting on its own line.
5.The lines should be connected, starting from the central image. The lines become thinner      as they radiate out from the center.
6.Make the lines the same length as the word/image they support.
7.Use multiple colors throughout the mind map, for visual stimulation and also for       encoding or grouping.
8.Develop your "own personal style" of mind mapping.
9.Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map.
10.Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy or outlines to embrace your branches.
Difference between Concept Map and Mind Map
Mind maps differ from concept maps in that mind maps focus on only one word or idea, whereas concept maps connect multiple words or ideas. Also, concept maps typically have text labels on their connecting lines/arms. Mind maps are based on radial hierarchies and tree structures denoting relationships with a central governing concept, whereas concept maps are based on connections between concepts in more diverse patterns. However, either can be part of a larger personal knowledge base system.

Definition of a Mind Map
A mind map is a visual representation of hierarchical information that includes a central idea surrounded by connected branches of associated topics.
Benefits of Mind Maps
1)      Help students brainstorm and explore any idea, concept, or problem
2)      Facilitate better understanding of relationships and connections between ideas and concepts
3)      Make it easy to communicate new ideas and thought processes
4)      Allow students to easily recall information
5)      Help students take notes and plan tasks
6)      Make it easy to organize ideas and concepts
7)      A Mind Map is a powerful graphic technique which provides a universal key to unlock the potential of the brain
How to Mind Map
All mind maps begin with a main concept or idea that the rest of the map revolves around, so choosing that idea or topic is the first step. Begin by creating an image or writing a word that represents that first main idea.
From that main idea, create branches (as many as needed), that each represent a single word that relates to the main topic. It’s helpful to use different colors and images to differentiate the branches and sub-topics.
Then, create sub-branches that stem from the main branches to further expand on ideas and concepts. These sub-branches will also contain words that elaborate on the topic of the branch it stems from. This helps develop and elaborate on the overall theme of the mind map. Including images and sketches can also be helpful in brainstorming and creating the sub-branch topics.
Mind maps can be created on paper but are more easily and fluidly created on a computer with mind mapping softwares
Mind Maps in Education and Teaching with Mind Maps
Mind mapping is a beneficial learning tool to help students learn any topic and think creatively. Mind maps are particularly helpful in the writing process and provide students with a natural way of thinking and building thoughts on a story plot or theme.
Mind maps also provide teachers with insight into their students’ thought process regarding a specific topic. By asking students to create mind maps demonstrating their comprehension of a concept, teachers are able to understand what a student’s prior knowledge was and how well the student understands the assignment or the material being taught. This is a very effective way of evaluating students’ understanding.




A Mind Map
Ø  Analogies
Generally means a comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
An analogy is a comparison of the similarities of two concepts. The familiar concept is called the analog and the unfamiliar one the target. Both the analog and the target have features (also called attributes). If the analog and the target share similar features, an analogy can be drawn between them.
For Example : Atomic structure and solar system.


A water-circuit diagram and an electric-circuit diagram (Analogy)

The analogies used in classrooms, textbooks, and web-based instruction should be designed to promote the cognitive process of constructing relations between what is already known and what is new.
Ø Blended learning
Blended learning refers to a strategic and systematic approach to combining times and modes of learning, integrating the best aspects of face-to-face and online interactions for each discipline, using appropriate ICTs.
Blended learning can increase access and flexibility for learners, increase level of active learning, and achieve better student experiences and outcomes. For teaching staff, blended learning can improve teaching and class management practices. A blend might include:
• face-to-face and online learning activities and formats
• traditional timetabled classes with different modes, such as weekend, intensive, external, trimester
• well established technologies such as lecture capture, and/or with social media and emerging technologies
• simulations, group activities, site-based learning, practicals.
Benefits of blended learning
1.      Improves efficiency
2.      Saves money
3.      Personalizes learning
4.      Better student data/evaluation
5.      Variety of Learning Experiences.

Ø Problem-based learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an exciting alternative to traditional classroom learning.
With PBL, teacher presents with a problem, not lectures or assignments or exercises. Since students are not handed "content", learning becomes active in the sense that they discover and work with content that they determine to be necessary to solve the problem.
In PBL, teacher acts as facilitator and mentor, rather than a source of "solutions."
Problem based learning will provide opportunities to
§  examine and try out what learners know
§  discover what learner need to learn
§  develop people skills for achieving higher performance in teams
§  improve communications skills
§  state and defend positions with evidence and sound argument
§  become more flexible in processing information and meeting obligations
§  Practice skills that will need after education.
§  Helps problem solving ability

Steps in PBL
1. Explore the issues:
Teacher introduces an "ill-structured" problem.
Discuss the problem statement and list its significant parts. 
2. List "What do we know?"
What do you know to solve the problem?
This includes both what you actually know and what strengths and capabilities each team member has.
3Develop, and write out, the problem statement in your own words:
4. List out possible solutions
5. List actions to be taken with a timeline
6. List "What do we need to know?"
7. Write up your solution with its supporting documentation, and submit it. 
8. Presenting and defending your conclusions:
9. Review your performance

Ø Mnemonics
Mnemonics are devices to help us remember (aid memoire or memory aid). They come in many varieties and can aid memorisation of many types of information.
Mnemonics are memory devices that help learners recall larger pieces of information, especially in the form of lists like characteristics, steps, stages, parts, phases, etc.
Different types of Mnemonic devices
1)      Method of Loci
The method of loci is a method of memorizing information by placing each item to be remembered at a point along an imaginary journey. The information can then be recalled in a specific order by retracing the same route through the imaginary journey. Loci is the plural for of the Latin word, locus, meaning place or location.
2)      The peg-word method
In the pegword mnemonic technique, you first memorize the short rhyme. Then, using these words as pegs, you create a visual image of each of the words you wish to remember.
3)      Rhyming
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (or the same sound) in two or more words, most often in the final syllables of lines in poems and songs. It can be effectively used as mnemonic.
4)      Initial letter strategy
Letter strategies include acronyms and acrostics (or sentence mnemonics). For example, the acronym VIBGYOR
5)      Acronyms : Use first letter from a group of words
6)      Acrostics: Make a sentence instead of artificial word.
Using the artificial word “ My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Neptune” helps to remember 8 planets in order of distance from Sun. That is Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,.
7)      The keyword method: Use of Imagery for remembering difficult, uncommon words items, situations.
8)      Chunking: Splitting the whole into chunks of five, two, or three digits.

Ø Graphic organizer
A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic representation of relationships among ideas and concepts. This instructional tool comes in a variety of formats that help students process information they have gathered and organize their ideas.
Graphic organizers make teaching and learning more interesting. Visually appealing and accessible to both struggling and advanced students, graphic organizers help students to:
• connect prior knowledge to new information
• integrate language and thinking in an organized format
• increase comprehension and retention of text
• organize writing
• engage in mid- to high levels of thinking
Graphic organizers guide learners’ thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual map or diagram. Graphic organizers are some of the most effective visual learning strategies for students and are applied across the curriculum to enhance learning and understanding of subject matter content. In a variety of formats dependent upon the task, graphic organizers facilitate students’ learning by helping them identify areas of focus within a broad topic.
In addition to helping students organize their thinking and writing process, graphic organizers can act as instructional tools. Teachers can use graphic organizers to illustrate a student’s knowledge about a topic or section of text showing areas for improvement.
What are Graphic Organizers?
“Graphic organizers are visual representation of knowledge that structures information by arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels. Their main function is to help present information in concise ways that highlight the organization and relationships of concepts”.

Definition of a Graphic Organizer
A graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or ideas. A graphic organizer guides the learner’s thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual map or diagram. They are also informally used as a term to describe all visual learning strategies such as concept mapping, mind mapping, and more.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Webs, concept maps, mind maps and plots such as stack plots and Venn diagrams are some of the types of graphic organizers used in visual learning to enhance thinking skills and improve academic performance.
Graphic organizers are communication devices that show the organization or structure of concepts as well as relationships between concepts. Spatial arrangements depicting the information’s structure reduce the cognitive demands on the learner. The learner does not have to process as much verbal information to understand the information. This is one of the reasons why graphic organizers are such powerful devices for students with language-based learning disabilities.
Why use graphic organizers?
1)      Using Graphic Organizers, students are considerably more likely to understand and remember the content subject you are teaching.
2)      Graphics help students separate what is important to know from what might be interesting, but not essential information.
3)      It is a powerful way to facilitate understanding.
4)      Students are more likely to become strategic learners.
5)      Reading and writing skills, communication skills, and analytical, critical, and creative thinking skills are all subject to improve when students learn recognize these patterns of thinking, construct, and use graphic organizers.
6)      Tools for critical and creative thinking
7)      Tools for organizing information
8)      Tools for understanding information and relationships
9)      Tools for depicting knowledge and understanding
10)  Tools for self-learning

Reference
1)      Mathew,T.K. & Mollykutty (2012) Science Education-Theoretical Bases of Teaching & Pedagogic Analysis, Chengannur: Rainbow Publications
2)      Mohan, R (1995). Innovative   science teaching for physical science. New Delhi: Prentice Hall
3)      Sharma,R.C. (1985) Modern Science Teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
4)      Sivarajan,K &Faziluddin,A.(2005) Science Education.  Calicut University : Central Co operative stores
5)      Das, R.C. (1985) Science teaching in schools. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers

6)      Mariamma Mathew (2014) Teaching Science for Biological and Physical Sciences. Malappuram : Nas publishers