This is an Educational blog maintained by SABARISH P, (MSc Physics, MEd, NET), Assistant Professor in Physical Science Education. Contact : pklsabarish@gmail.com

Wednesday 17 June 2015

Science Process Skills

Process of Science Domain- Science Process Skills
(13 Process skills in UNESCO Source book)
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET
Assistant professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.
lScientists use certain processes (skills).
l13 process skills approved by UNESCO.
1)      Observing
2)      Classifying
3)      Measuring
4)      Communicating
5)      Using number relations
6)      Using spatial relations
7)      Inferring
8)      Predicting
9)      Making operational definitions
10)  Formulating hypothesis
11)  Identifying and controlling variables
12)  Interpreting data
13)  Experimenting.

1 Observing
lThrough observation the learner acquires knowledge through his sense organs. Observation should be objective and meaningful. Thus observations become an integral part of the method of science.
2 Classifying
lClassification means recognizing more and more properties (collected information) and ordering them. The skill of classification varies with age, standard, and mental growth of the learners.
3 Measuring
lMeasuring is a part of scientific investigation process. The skill of measuring can easily be practiced along with other skills rather than in isolation.

lDoes the volume of air change during deep inhalation and exhalation?
4 Communicating
lAcquisition of knowledge becomes fruitful only when the gathered knowledge is communicated to others.
lDifferent ways for communication - oral, written, etc.
lMore effective, when it is done through the most scientific way and with supporting material
5 Using number relations
lThis process skill refers to the ability to illustrate the available data using mathematical language. See, such a learning activity.
lThe ratio of different pea plants obtained in the F2 generation is given in the checker board. Analyse and find out the number of each type of Pea plant and their ratio
lThe learner should be able to use number of relations, and then only he would be able to solve the above problem.
6 Using space time relationship
lAbility to find out the relationships, between size, shape, distance, movement, speed, directions, time etc.
lWhen we make vegetable garden, what are the factors related with the above process skill?
7 Inferring
lAbility of drawing conclusions by analyzing the data properly
lIt is more than mere observation or data collection
lWhen we analyze a table of data what are the inferences that we can make?
8 Predicting
lAbility to forecast what would happen in future
lIt is based on data obtained so far
lIn science, prediction is valid only with the support of scientific evidences.
lThe students of science should develop skill of prediction based on the science concepts acquired by them so far.
9 Making operational definitions

lDefine a scientific concept operationally,
lThe definitions, he makes may reflect his experiences also.
lWhenever he wants to apply these concepts in a real life situation, this operational definition may help him.
lLet's examine how would a student, who studies about agriculture try to define the term agriculture operationally. From his information, the definition he can formulate may be like "Agriculture is cultivating plants or rearing animals for various needs and economic benefits of human beings".

10 Formulating hypothesis
lHypothesis can be referred to as a temporary intellectual, tentative solution for a problem
lThe process of problem solving proceeds on the basis of the hypothesis formulated
lLet us see an example
lThe vital capacity of cigarette smokers is lower than that of others. Is it true?
lFormulate a tentative guess i.e., smokers have low vital capacity
lThe scientific inquiry on the problem starts with this hypothesis.
11. Interpreting data
lInformation becomes more meaningful
lwhen they throw light on new knowledge.             
lSkill of interpreting data is important to be developed among learners of science.
12. Controlling Variables
lwhen we plan an experiment, variables are to be controlled
lAn example: Experiments of Charles, Joules & Boyles laws where Temperature, pressure & volume  are controlled.
2.13 Experimenting
lExperimenting is the integrated form of process skill, which includes
lskills like observing,
lmeasuring,
lcontrolling variables,
linterpreting data etc.
lIt is essential to formulate a hypothesis to prove whether CO2 is needed far photosynthesis.
lIn high school classes we should provide opportunities for doing experiments.
lBy doing experiments, the learner could acquire many process skills.

As mentioned earlier, the process skill domain of science is very significant. The teachers while planning learning activities, should focus on the development of the process skills.

Taxonomy of educational objectives - Bloom’s taxonomy

Taxonomy of educational objectives - Bloom’s taxonomy
 Prepared by
SABARISH-P
M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET
Assistant professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education
Attur, Thrissur.
    The overall purpose of process of education is to bring about worth-while changes in the behavior pattern of pupils. Instructional objectives have the directive role to play in this process. For teaching to result worth-while behavior changes, a clear understanding of educational objectives is essential. Since modern evaluation is all objective based, a comprehensive statement of educational objectives in terms of expected pupil-behavior become desirable. More over if the educational policies set forth in statement on education and national objectives are to be implemented, the aims and purpose must be stated in terms of behavior to be expected from student who have indeed achieve them.
Ø  Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
    Taxonomy of educational objectives means classification of educational objectives.
Ø  Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
A committee of colleges, lead by Benjamin Bloom in 1956, identified three domains of educational objectives/activities: 
1)      Cognitive: Knowledge 
2)      Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) 
3)      Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills) 


Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain is concerned with ‘knowing’ and it includes activities such as remembering and recalling knowledge, thinking, problem solving and creativity.
The cognitive domain involves knowledge development. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place. 




Cognitive Domain – Objectives


·   Knowledge
Recall data or information.
Examples: Recalls an equation, recalls Newton’s laws. Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer, Knows the safety rules.
Key Words/Action verbs/Specifications: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
·   Comprehension
Understand the meaning. Comprehension represents the lowest level of understanding.  It refers to a type of understanding such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make  use of the material or idea being communicated.
Translation, interpretation, and extrapolation of instructions and problems.
State a problem in one's own words.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in oneís own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words/Action verbs/Specifications:
Comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
·         Application
Use a concept in a new situation.
Applies what was learned in the classroom into new situations.
Examples: Use a equation to solve a problem. Apply equations of motion to calculate  the speed, distance, time etc.. 
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
·         Analysis
Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood.
Analysis of Elements, Analysis of Relationships & Analysis of Organizational principles

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
·         Synthesis
Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements.
Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.
Examples: Production of a unique communication, production of a plan, Derivation of relations,  Design a machine to perform a specific task..
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
·         Evaluation
Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.
Examples: Select the most effective solution. Justify a new project.
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective Domain
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: 
The classification of Educational objective in Affective Domain is given by Bloom and Krathwohl (1964).
The educational objectives under this domain emphasis feeling, emotions of an individual.
Affective domain – Objectives (remember R2VOC)
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization by a value or value complex
·         Receiving
Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
Willing to receive or to attend to certain phenomena or stimuli
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
·         Responding
Active participation on the part of the learners. 
Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon.  Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). 
Responding to a particular stimuli.
Willingness to respond.
Satisfaction in response.
Examples:  Participates in class discussions.  Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
·         Valuing
The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. 
            Acceptance of Value.
            Eg. Pupils develop a positive attitude to incorporate non violent behavior to his life.
            Performance for a value.
            Eg. Pupil performs non violent behavior in different situations.
            Commitment.
            Eg. Pupil tries to convince others the worth of non violence in modern era.
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
·         Organization
Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. 
The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. 
Organization of values into a system.
The determination of interrelationship among them.
Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for ones behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. 
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.
·         Characterization
Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. 
 Internalization of values.
Adopt belief system and philosophy.
Values become part of behavior.
Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.  Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. 
KeyWords/Actionverbs/Specifications: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The six major objectives are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: 
Dave (1989) of NCERT has proposed a taxonomy of psychomotor domain as follows.
Psychomotor domain Objectives (remember IMPAN)
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization
·         Imitation
Imitation of an action or performance.
Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality.
Example: Copying a work of art.
·         Manipulation
Manipulation of an act. This includes differentiating various movements and selecting the proper one.
Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing
Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
·         Precision
Precision in reproduction in a given act. This includes accuracy, exactness in performance.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be “just right.”
·         Articulation
Articulation among different acts. This includes coordination, sequence harmony among the acts.
Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency
Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
·         Naturalization
Performing an act with the least psychic energy.
Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it.
Examples: Yesudas singing  a melody, Sachin playing cricket, etc. 
  

Note:
Instructional Objective: An instructional objective is a statement that describes what the pupil will do, or be able to do if the instruction has been completed. It is a learning product that teacher hopes will result from the instruction. It is the terminal behavior expected of the pupil at the end of a period/instruction.
Example: The pupil acquires knowledge about force.
The pupil understands the term work and displacement.
Specification/Expected behavioural change/Specific objectives/: The observable measurable behavioural changes are called specific objectives/specification. The statement of an objective can be further clarified by defining it in terms of observable behavioural changes.
Example: The pupil recalls  newtons first law. (Recall  is the action verb)
            : The pupil explains the equation of work. (Explain is the action verb)
  


Ø Specifications or Specific Outcomes of Learning (SOL)
·         Specifications are measurable and observable change of behavior in pupil
·         SOL are expressed in Operational terms.

Ø How to write Instructional objectives ? (Subject+verb+object)
·         Instructional objectives consist of three components
·         Performer/Subject:  Pupil
·         Behavior expected/verb :  A transitive verb (Action verb)
Eg: Recall, recognize, identifies etc.
·         Related Learning material(object)
Eg. A term, a concept, a part etc.

Eg: The pupil recalls  newtons first law